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PHILADELPHIA 
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A cession LS. O59 2 | 
REFERENCE | 

GIVEN BY 


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A FOREWORD 


[N preparing this catalogue, we have been 
mindful of the need for some scientific facts 
concerning fire-clay products, which has been 
expressed to us many times by various users. 
Without attempting to compile an exhaustive 
treatise on the subject, we have endeavored to 
supply some data that would serve the con- 
venience of the busy executive, and which 
would also encourage the juniors in the organi- 
zations to pursue their investigations of the 
subject further. 


Grateful acknowledgment is made for help 
of various kinds to The Hinrichs Laboratories, 
St. Louis; The Mellon Institute of Industrial 
Research, Pittsburg, and to the authorities 
mentioned in various foot-notes appended to 
the text. 


As a booklet such as this can be at the best 
only a bare outline of the subject, we will be 
pleased to have the opportunity to discuss 
practical questions with our readers, or to go 
more into detail regarding any portion of the 
following pages. 


ROBER f A-B WALSH: 
President. 


SST Eee 


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WALSH FIRE CLAY PRODUCTS co. an 
St. Louis, U, S#A: 


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CONTENTS 


HeeAbout:Ourselves............ 7 


Il Why Some Clays Are 
Mires. Clays.) one ne OOM 


III A Short Outline of Chemistry. 15 


IV “Following Through” at the 
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COMPLETE INDEX 
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PLATE 1—View of the New Walsh Plant, Vandalia, Mo. 


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REFRACTORY FACTS 


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ABOUT OURSELVES 
“THE Walsh Fire Clay Products Company 


represents the development of a manu- 
facturing ideal; it is the result of constant effort 
on the part of the Mississippi Glass Company 
to produce refractory material of the highest 
possible grade. From the year 1890 until 1915, 
what is now the Walsh organization was Padus 
to the trade as The Fire Clay Department of 
the Mississippi Glass Company. 


Since the time, years before the period 
mentioned, when its glass-melting pots, furnace 
blocks and glass-house refractories were ship- 
ped from Pittsburg to the east bank of the 
Mississippi River and hauled by wagon to the 
glass works, the Mississippi Glass Company had 
made surveys and tests leading to the develop- 
ment of a more convenient source of supply of 
fire-clays of the outstanding quality necessary in 
the economical operation of glass melting fur- 
naces. When there were found in Missouri, 
fire-clay areas of extraordinary quality, the 
Glass Company began to manufacture all the 
refractories, pots, blocks and fire-brick used in 
its Own operations. 


In glass furnace practice, it was observed 
that improvements in the quality of refrac- 
tories, of a degree generally considered of slight 
importance, always yielded increased service 
that was beyond expectations. Thereafter 
every effort was directed toward the develop- 
ment of these so-called “‘slight’’ gains in quality. 


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Other glass manufacturers soon became 
aware of the high quality refractories made by 
the Mississippi Glass Company, and the com- 
pany was called upon to serve them. These 
demands grew and in 1890 the Fire Clay De- 
partment was formally -organized. The well- 
equipped clay manufacturing plant of Thomas 
Coffin & Company, Ltd., in St. Louis, was 
secured with its additional force of skilled 
operatives. 


In 1900 a second refractories plant was 
acquired at Vandalia, Mo., which was event- 
ually enlarged to a daily capacity of 50,000 
brick. 


In 1915, in order to identify the product 
more definitely, the Fire Clay Department was 
incorporated under the name, “Walsh Fire 
Clay Products Company.” As the Mississippi 
Glass Company name had descended through 
successive generations, this severance, al- 
though only in form, was made with reluctance 
to conform to business expediency. The owner- 
ship and management remain unchanged. 


In 1917 to meet the larger demands for 
“Walsh Brands,’’ and to standardize the im- 
provements that had been developed, con- 
struction of the new plant near St. Louis was 
started. That plant is briefly described and 
illustrated in this book. 


“The Proper Material to Meet the Furnace 
Conditions,’ is the Walsh Slogan; “Better 
Refractories’’ continues to be the chief objec- 
tive of the Walsh Organization—the ideal that 
means satisfaction to users of “‘Walsh” Brands. 


Co-operation with the _ railroad freight 
trafhc departments, on the part of the shipper, 
is always helpful to the consignee. 


RUTTER 


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Definite information relative to freight 
movements is furnished, unnecessary delays 
in transit are prevented, the most advanta- 
geous routes are specified, rates are checked, 
not to mention other benefits provided by 
a well equipped Traffic Department. 


The Traffic Manager of this Company is an 
official of seasoned experience in the railroad 
business. Every order passes through his office 
before it is sent to the factories for execution. 


In such matters as handling claims for 
damages incurred in transit, tracing shipments, 
or any matters pertaining to shipping, cus- 
tomers are invited to avail themselves of the 
expert services of the Traffic Department. 


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CHAPTER II 


Why Some Clays Are 
ietre wie hays 


CLAYS are the residue of feldspathic rocks 

that were distintegrated by ages of 
‘Weathering,’ which is the convenient term 
used to describe the action of water, heat and 
cold. Granite is the most common feldspathic 
rock, but such formations exist in great variety 
and quantity. Granite is a mixture of feldspar, 
the predominating material, and quartz, with 
small proportions of mica and two or three 
other rocks whose characteristics and names it 
is not necessary to consider further. 


Feldspars Feldspars are essentially _ sili- 

cates of alumina! combined 
with smaller quantities of potash, soda or lime. 
During the weathering action that has been at 
work for millions of years, these last-named 
substances have for the most part been dis- 
solved and separated from the decomposed 
feldspar. This separation has left a clay 
material composed of di-oxide of silicon (SiO,) 
or silica, in chemical combination with alumi- 
num oxide, (Al,O*) or alumina, and water, 
together with varying proportions of uncom- 
bined or “‘free’’ silica (sand), potassium oxide, 
magnesium oxide, iron (ferric) oxide, and oxide 
of titanium. 


Composition Clays vary with the char- 
Of Fire-Clay acter of the rocks from 

which they were derived; 
chemically pure clays do not occur in Nature. 
Theoretically, pure fire-clay. is the chemical 


1 See page 21 


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combination of silica, alumina and _ water 
according to the formula! Al,O; . 2SiOs. 
2H,O. Proportions by weight according to 
this formula are: alumina 39.45%; silica 
46.64%; water 13.91%. This substance pos- 
sesses unusual heat-resisting qualities. Con- 
sequently when most of the deleterious ele- 
ments have been washed out during the dis- 
integration of the original feldspars and the 
residue conforms approximately to hydrous 
silicate of alumina, you have a clay that 
resists heat to such an uncommon degree that 
it is called “‘Fire-clay.”’ 


Plasticity and Most clays become more or 
Refractoriness less plastic (soft and paste- 
like) when ground in water. 
In the United States are large deposits of hard, 
non-plastic clays which break with a sharp 
conchoidal fracture; these are termed ‘‘Flint’’ 
clays. Other clays, called ““Semi-flints,’’ that 
seem to share equally the characteristics of both 
the plastics and the flint clays are not uncom- 
mon. ‘There is no relationship between the 
hardness and the refractoriness of fire-clays.? 


Analysis The causes of plasticity in clays are 
not fully understood by chemists or 
physicists. In fact, the authorities in the tech- 
nology of clays agree that chemical analysis 
alone is not a safe guide for determining either 
the degree of plasticity or refractoriness. Syn- 
thetic clays, compounded in the laboratory for 
purposes of comparative tests, do not behave 
like natural clays—actual results are frequently 
the reverse of what had been predicted upon 
1 See page 22 
2 The fire-clay properties of this Company comprise an extensive’ 
acreage in several districts. They were acquired, for the most part, 
by the parent company, The Mississippi Glass Company. Flint, semi- 


flint and highly refractory plastic clays underlie these lands in 
abundance. 


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the basis of chemical analyses. For these 
reasons the best authorities of the present day 
base their conclusions concerning clay products 
almost exclusively upon physical tests, recog- 
nizing the fact, however, that the influence of 
some of the constituent elements of fire-clays 
has a more pronounced effect upon their 
refractoriness than others. Iron oxide (Fe:O3;) 
and oxide of titanium (JT10,.), both of which are 
nearly always present in fire-clays, are com- 
paratively inert and harmless within ordinary 
limits. On the other hand, the oxides of 
potassium and sodium, commonly termed the 
alkalies, and magnesium oxide are ‘“‘violent”’ in 
their action; their presence in excess is regarded 
as a danger signal to the manufacturer.! 


Spalling Because of their physical properties, 

igh-grade fire-clays, to use the 
commercial term current with those who work 
with clay products, are more useful generally 
than other refractories. Silica expands at work- 
ing temperatures; the better grade of clay 
refractories, however, are comparatively neutral 
as to expansion and contraction.2 Since the 
variation of heat conditions tends to break 
most brick to pieces in a short time, it is 
important to select high-grade neutral products. 
Such materials resist repeated changes of tem- 
perature with less injury than that imposed 
upon other classes of refractories. The action 
of a brick, chipping off or going to pieces from 


1 The Walsh fire-clay deposits are notably free from excessive alkali. 
The following analysis of a Walsh XX brick by the Mellon Institute 
of Industrial Research (Pittsburgh) is typical: 


CAM ofa. SSei2 Rime tan .64 
Alumina...... 43 .30 Magnesia..... .46 
Ferric Oxide.. 2.48 Alkalies...... .15 


2 Prof. D. A. Moulton, Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa, tested 3 
samples of Walsh XX brand of brick; at ‘‘cone 33 down”’ the specimen 
showing an average expansion of | .03 %. 


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the effect of repeated expansion and contraction 
is called “‘Spalling.”’ 


Clay is classed as a granular substance, 
but the true fire-clay, free of foreign materials, 
is composed of such exceedingly small particles 
that a specimen mixed with twice its weight of 
water, passes through a screen of 250 mesh 
fineness, which contains 62,500 openings per 
square inch of screen surface.(!) Plastic clays 
for certain classes of materials are ““Washed”’ 
by dissolving them in pure water. The solu- 

_ tion, with the genuine clay held in suspension, 
is drawn off and evaporated or filtered through 
filter-presses. This process removes a consid- 
erable percentage of native impurities. 


Mining The fire-clay deposits of Missode 
Methods are mined by various methods; 

open-pit mining with steam shovels 
is practicable in some localities; drift mines pre- 
vail in other sections, and some large areas are 
exploited by means of shaft mines. The 
deposits vary to a considerable degree in thick- 
ness, area and quality. 


There are in great abundance so-called “‘fire- 
clays’ suitable for the manufacture of a large 
variety of products, but some authorities ques- 
tion the correctness of applying the term 
“refractory to all such clays.2 Users of 
refractory materials are rapidly becoming more 
discriminative, following the lead of a few large 
consumers who have made extensive investiga- 
tions and given special attention to the subject. 


1 Alfred B. Searles, “‘Clays.”’ 
2 Bleininger & Brown—Bureau of Standards Tech. Paper No. 7. 


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CHAPTER III 
A Short Outline of Chemistry 


HOSE readers who had the opportunity to study 

Chemistry during their school days have probably felt 
the need of reviewing the subject when reading technical 
articles. Those who have not studied the subject at all 
will derive more benefit from their study of refractories 
and their uses, if they have even the slight acquaintance 
with the principles of Chemistry that can be offered in 
this brief outline. Our purpose is to promote a better 
understanding of clay manufacturing and of the uses of 
refractories. 


Matter All substance, or matter, is first 

classified under the headings Solids, 
Liquids and Gases. Some substances under 
different conditions, exist in each of these three 
states. Water for instance is a solid at the 
temperatures 32 degrees Fahrenheit or lower, 
a liquid between 32 and 212 degrees, and a gas 
at temperatures above 212. Many other sub- 
stances behave in a similar fashion, although at 
varying freezing and boiling points; mercury 
freezes at 38 degrees below zero Fahrenheit; 
iron boils at 4442 degrees Fahrenheit, to cite 
only two examples. 


Matter, or Substance, which are used inter- 
changeably in this outline, could not be under- 
stood if we should accept, as final, the evidence 
of our senses. That which may appear to be a 
dead, inert mass of material, whether a stone, 
a log of wood, a pool of water, or a body of gas, 
is in fact only the outward appearance presented 
by innumerable individual moving particles 
called molecules (pronounced molly-kiules). 
Molecules are too small to be visible even by 
the aid of the most powerful microscopes, but 
the experience of thousands of able and learned 


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Page fifteen 


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scientists is proof that the theory of molecules 
is as practical to the world’s work as meat and 
potatoes. 


All substance, then, is made up of countless 
invisible particles which are in a state of motion 
or vibration. If the molecules are very close to 
each other the substance is correspondingly 
dense and hard; if the distance between them 
is relatively great, the substance is light, liquid, 
or gaseous. The study of the activity and con- 
dition of molecules is called ““Physics.”’ Elec- 
tricity, Heat, Energy, Motion, Expansion and 
Contraction are some of the common classi- 
fications of that science. 


Molecules do not, however, constitute the 
final subdivision of matter. A molecule is made 
up of smaller particles called ‘““Atoms.’’ Upon 
theories of the action of atoms, the science of 
Chemistry is based. 


Substances built up of but one kind of atom 
are called “‘Elements;’”’ those built up of mole- 
cules—two or more kinds of atoms—are desig- 
nated ‘““Compounds.”’ Gold, for example, silver, 
iron, oxygen, etc., are elements. Sulphuric 
acid, on the other hand, when analyzed is found 
to consist of hydrogen, oxygen and sulphur, 
chemically combined; it then, is a compound. 
There are 83 elements known to science, and as 
the present list has been of slow scientific dis- 
covery, it is quite probable that new elements 
will be discovered as the world grows older. 
Some elements have names associated with 
them for ages—gold, silver, copper, iron, etc.; 
many others have been given Latin names by | 
their discoverers—radium, platinum, etc. In 
chemical calculations abbreviations of the full 
names are used, or abbreviations of the Latin 


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equivalent; e. g. Iron—Fe (Ferrum), Barium— 
Ba. The complete list of known elements is 
given at the end of this chapter. 

Until recent years it was thought that the 
atom was in truth the final sub-division of 
matter. The discovery of radium and radio- 
activity has now convinced scientists that atoms 
are merely aggregations of electrons, an electron 
being a unit of electrical energy. Chemistry, 
however, is concerned for the most part with 
the action of atoms, so we need give but little 
thought to the theory of electrons. 


Physical and Changes in matter are 
Chemical Changes either physical or chemi- 

CAlvasmel o willustrate: the 
distinction let us consider the familiar changes 
that take place in water. The change from 
ice to water, and from water to steam, in no 
way changes the condition of the molecule, but 
only the relation of the water-molecules 
each to the other. You change the form of 
sugar or salt when you dissolve these substances 
in water, but this does not change the consti- 
tution of the sugar-molecule or the water- 
molecule. Such changes are physical, and not 
chemical. 


If, however, two atoms of hydrogen gas are 
brought, under the right conditions, into con- 
tact with one atom of Oxygen gas, they com- 
bine to form a substance altogether different 
from either—the new substance being water, 
which is represented by the formula H,O. This 
is a change on the part of the atoms to form 
new molecules, and is called a chemical 
change or reaction. 


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Elements have the inclination to unite or 
combine with certain other elements in a 
thoroughly systematic fashion. These various 
combinations always take place in exactly the 
same proportions. The attraction of elements 
for certain others is called ““‘Chemical Affinity.” 
Some affinities are stronger than others—for 
example, the affinity of iron for oxygen at high 
temperatures is strong; we see roll scale form 
very rapidly at the hot rolls in the iron or steel 
mills. This affinity between iron and oxygen 
is not so strong at atmospheric temperatures; 
the combination takes place more slowly and 
results in iron rust. These changes show that 
2 atoms of iron combined with 3 atoms of 
oxygen, chemically to form a new substance 
which is iron oxide, Fe.QOs3. 


Valence Elements vary in the number of 

atoms of other elements which they 
are able to hold in combination. One atom of 
hydrogen, for example, will combine with one 
atom of chlorine, two atoms with one of oxygen, 
three with one of nitrogen, and four with one of 
carbon. That property of an element which 
determines the number of atoms of another ele- 
ment that it can hold in combination is called 
“Valence.” This is merely a numerical relation 
which conveys no information regarding the 
intensity of the affinity between atoms; yet a 
knowledge of valence is very important in 
determining theoretically, chemical reactions 
and in expressing them intelligibly. In all 
mensuration, there must be a standard for 
expressing values. Hydrogen has been selected 
as the valence standard and given the value I, 
because scientists have determined that one 
atom of this element is never able to hold in 


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combination more than one atom of any other 
element. Reference to the table at the end of 
this chapter will show the valences of the 
elements. 


Atomic Why are some substances heavier 
Weights than others? One cubic foot of iron 

weighs about twice as much as the 
same volume of aluminum; while a cubic foot 
of lead weighs nearly four times as much as the 
same-sized block of iron. The variations in the 
weights of different substances are due to the 
difference in weights of the atoms of the several 
elements. Atoms being so minute, it is natur- 
ally impossible to weigh them physically, so in 
chemistry they are weighed relatively—hydrogen 
being the approximate unit of weight. The 
atomic weight of Iron is 56, which means that 
an atom of Iron (Fe) is practically 56 times as 
heavy as an atom of hydrogen, which is 1.008 
by weight. 


Chemists are able to break up combinations 
and to establish new combinations. For ex- 
ample, by bringing together hydrochloric acid 
and zinc, the acid combination is broken up to 
form a new combination, zinc chloride and 
hydrogen. These processes are called “‘Re- 
actions.” It is by thus breaking down and 
building up, and calculating the changes that 
a chemical analysis is made. 


Acids and We are accustomed to think of 
Bases. acids as liquids that have a sour 

taste and that “‘eat’”’ or corrode 
other substances. To a chemist these sub- 
stances have a more clearly defined meaning. 
Acids always contain hydrogen, among other 
elements. 


2 


CAMEO TOE @ TON TTA TATAAATHTATHTATMANY 


Page nineteen 


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For example, the molecule of hydrochloric 
acid contains one atom of hydrogen in com- 
bination with one of chlorine, according to 
the formula HCI; nitric acid is composed of one 
atom of hydrogen in combination with one of 
nitrogen and three of oxygen, according to the 
formula HNO3; sulphuric acid consists of two 
atoms of hydrogen, one of sulphur and four of 
oxygen—H,.SO,. These are just a few of the 
many acids, known to chemistry. 


The “opposite” of an acid, so to speak, is 
an alkali or base. ‘Acids cannot be discussed 
thoroughly except with respect to the relation 
they bear to bases. Potassium hydroxide,sodium 
hydroxide, calcium hydroxide and calcium 
oxide (lime) are some of the more common bases. 
A base, you see, has a metallic element in it. 


When an acid and a base are brought to- 
gether, each neutralizes the other. The metal 
in the base takes the place of the hydrogen in 
the acid, and a new substance called a Salt is 
formed. At the same time the hydrogen that is 
liberated from the acid combines withtheoxygen 
from the base to form water (HO). A salt is 
a neutral substance, neither acid nor basic. 
These changes, or reactions, may be illustrated 
by using the symbols of the elements that took 
part in the reaction, in the form of a mathe- 
matical equation: H,SQO, (sulphuric acid) + 2 
KOH (Potassium hydroxide) = K2SO, (Potas- 
sium sulphate, the Salt) + 2H,O. 

HNO; (nitric acid) + NaOH( Sodium hydrox- 
ide) = NaNOs (Sodium nitrate) + H,O 

You will observe, of course, that the total num- 
ber of atoms of any element on the left side of 
the equation is equal to the total number of 
that element on the right side, although the 
combinations are different. 


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These reactions are typical of the behavior 
of all acids and bases. You see now why you 
have been told to wet an acid stain on your 
clothes or your skin with ammonia which 
“kills” the acid; and why soap suds are an 
antidote for acid poisoning; and why you have 
taken a pinch of baking soda for an acid 
stomach—to mention a few time-honored house- 
hold practices. 


The litmus test is commonly used to deter- 
mine whether a substance is basic or acid in 
character. Litmus dye is blue, and if a solu- 
tion that is colored blue with litmus, or a strip 
of paper colored by the solution, is touched with 
an acid, the color is changed to red. If the 
colored solution or paper is then treated with a 
base or an alkaline solution, the blue color is 
restored. 


Some substances which do not seem to be 
acid to the least degree, act like acids when 
brought into contact with basic substances. 
Silica (SiO.), the common name for Silicon 
Di-oxide or quartz-sand, is classed as an acid 
because it neutralizes basic substances, such as 
Lime (CaQO), to form a neutral salt called Cal- 
cium Silicate, CaSiO3, which is a common slag 
in iron and steel practice. That is why nothing 
siliceous is allowed to come in contact with the 
basic materials in the bottom and sides of a 
basic open hearth furnace when it is hot—the 
furnace bottom would be fluxed or slagged out. 
In a blast furnace the silica in the ore and coke 
ash combine with the basic limestone—and the 
neutral slag that is formed is in fact a salt. 


Alumina, Al.O;, or the oxide of aluminum, 
has the peculiar quality of acting in certain re- 
actions either as an acid or as a base. 


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It is called a neutral compound, and is an im- 
portant constituent of fire clays. Where basic 
or acid material is required, alumina serves 
either purpose. One of the familiar forms of 
aluminum oxide (or alumina ‘“‘for short’’) 
is granular corundum or emery. 


Fire-clays are salts—silicates of alumina; 
alumina having acted as a base in reaction with 
silica, Si(OH),. The pure clay substance which 
identifies fire-clays bears the formula AlI,Os, 
2Si02, 2H,O. (This particular silicate is more 
fully discussed in Chapter II under the heading 
‘‘Fire-Clays.’’) Another familiar silicate is 
Portland cement, which is made of silica, alu- 
mina, lime, gypsum, etc., in definite propor- 
tions, but in a diversity of forms, depending 
upon the locality and raw materials of the 
manufacturer. 


Sometimes a slight reaction between the 
fire-brick linings in manufacturing equipment 
and the raw materials is a benefit, and the 
manufacturer makes a point of causing such 
reaction. For example, the protective coating 
that forms on the fire-brick lining of a Portland 
cement kiln is usually started by a reaction 
between the cement-making ingredients and the 
brick. A thin layer of the neutral coating 
forms by the action of silica and alumina as 
explained above, and it gradually thickens with- 
out further attacking the brick. The kiln 
operator makes such a change in his mixture or 
in his kiln temperatures as will start this 
reaction. After the coating has started, it pro- 
tects the brick from further action unless the 
coating should be removed. 


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A glass furnace is simply a reservoir for 
active chemical operations involving acids and 
bases. “Glass Sand,’ which is almost pure 
silica (SiO.), is the acid; salt-cake (sodium 
sulphate Na2SO,), and soda-ash (Na2CO3) are 
the principal bases. The salt, then, is a silicate 
of soda, or plain glass. All the chemicals that 
enter into a glass ‘““Batch,”’ as the glass-making 
mass of materials is called, are destructive of 
the fire-brick materials that build the tank (or 
reservoir) unless the brick are of extraordinary 
purity. “Glass House’”’ refractories, therefore, 
are in favorable repute because they success- 
fully resist the combined action of the chemicals 
and the high heats encountered in glass 
furnaces. 


Many chemical reactions that long have 
been familiar, but which many observers have 
not understood, are quite simple when the 
elements that are involved are known. For 
instance, fire-brick in furnaces are often rapidly 
destroyed when a steam jet is used to prevent 
clinker from attacking the grate bars. In such 
cases, it will almost invariably be found that 
the coal used is very high in sulphur, which is 
driven off as a gas. The sulphur, the hydrogen 
of the steam (H.O) and the oxygen of the 
steam and air, all combine to form sulphuric 
acid (H.SO,), which is the destructive agent, 
instead of the heat. 


Vitrification Vitrification is a term that is 

used to indicate that the basic 
impurities in a clay have reacted with the 
silica to form a salt of glassy nature. If the 
centers of vitrification in a hard-burned fire 
brick could be colored for the purpose of making 
them visible, the surface of the specimen would 


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present a speckled appearance, the specks being 
small and separate. * An over-burned brick is 
one in which these points of vitrification have 
become so numerous and so large as to com- 
pose a large part of the brick, which is then in 

a “‘Glassified’’ condition. A paving block 
should be vitrified, as a glassy, non-absorbent 
texture is an Aahecibenre | ina pavement. Most 
good building brick are semi-vitrified, vitrifica- 
tion having progressed sufficiently to give the 
brick the required degree of cold-crushing 
strength, without lowering the porosity below 
a desirable percentage. 

A well-burned fire-brick of high quality, if 
examined under a powerful microscope, shows 
a very low degree of vitrification, but sufficient 
to impart to the brick the necessary physical 
strength. 


‘‘Reducing Flame’’ These terms are 
‘‘Reducing Atmosphere”? 1n frequent use 
‘‘Oxidizing Flame’’ in metallurgical 

operations. As 
they have some direct effect upon fire-brick 
that are subjected to their influences, it is well 
to be familiar with them. 


A reducing flame is one that tends to reduce 
or liberate a metal from combination with its 
oxides. It is a flame that is burning with an 
insufficient quantity of oxygen, and, therefore, 
it takes for combustion purposes the oxygen 
that is combined with the metal (say iron oxide, 
Fe.O;). This naturally liberates or reduces the 
metal. All brick clays, building tile, etc., con- 
tain a low percentage of iron oxide. If the 
flames within the kiln that burn the brick during 
their manufacture, do not get sufficient air 


*The bluish black “Iron Spots’’ so familiar to users of fire-brick, 
have no relationship to these ‘‘Centers of Vitrification.”’ 


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(oxygen), the oxygen that is within the brick 
with the iron oxide and titanium oxide is seized 
upon, and the metals are partially reduced. 
This gives the brick a dark color but does not 
materially affect its quality. The interior of 
such a kiln would be an example of a ‘“‘Reducing 
Atmosphere.’ When tests of fire-brick are 
being made, it is advisable to avoid a reducing 
atmosphere by giving access to plenty of air, as 
many experts consider the reducing conditions 
harmful to the specimen being tested, and the 
result misleading. 


An oxydizing flame, reasoning to the con- 
trary, is given more air than it needs for com- 
bustion, and the excess of oxygen is com- 
Minedewith’ the object in the flame, which is 
then said to be oxidized. A blue or color- 
less flame is an oxydizing flame—a_ yellow 
flame is reducing. 


Combustion The rapid oxidation of carbon- 

aceous substances is combus- 
tion, in the commonly accepted sense of the 
word. Oils and gases are compounds in several 
different proportions of carbon and hydrogen, 
which are called hydro-carbons, and also of 
carbon and oxygen. Complete combustion 
takes place when carbon is combined with 
sufficient oxygen to satisfy fully the affinity of 
these elements for each other. The resulting 
product is carbon di-oxide or carbonic acid 
gas, CO. 


Incomplete combustion consists of the com- 
bination of carbon with one atom of oxygen 
instead of two, and the formation of carbon 
monoxide gas, CO (‘“‘mon”’ meaning one). This 
reaction liberates heat, but only about one- 
third the quantity liberated by complete com- 


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bustion and the formation of CO,. Incomplete 
combustion is the result of incorrect firing 
methods, of course. Modern boiler furnaces 
that are stoker fired, and have a sufficient air 
supply (without an over supply) usually afford 
complete combustion in the practical sense. 


Pure hydrogen gas burns with a colorless 
flame, at a temperature of 3452 degrees F.; it 
is one of the principal ingredients of producer 
gas and water gas, as will be noted further on. 
When H is oxidized the product of combustion 
is H,O—water. 


The engineer's problem is to secure com- 
plete combustion, or the combination of one 
atom of the carbon with two atoms of oxygen, 
so that the product of combustion will be COs, 
(and H.O when gas fuel is used), which goes up 
the stack. If the waste gases in the stack con- 
tain about fourteen per cent of CO, and no 
CO, the practice may be considered perfect. 


To avoid an over-supply of air, it is impor- 
tant to avoid a leakage of air through cracks in 
the walls of the settings. The first precaution 
is to use fire-brick that are neutral as to 
expansion and contraction, and also of a per- 
fection of workmanship that facilitates the 
building of masonry with close joints. Brick 
that contract excessively at high temperatures 
leave numerous small crevices in the walls, and 
any considerable expansion opens up leaks that 
lower the efficiency of the furnace. The use of 
dependable plastic clay cement is most impor- 
tant in this connection. 


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Page twenty-six 


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Sainy Louw, 


We have been discussing 
incomplete combustion as 
something to be avoided, which is correct when 
maximum heat value is desired from fuel. 
However, there are important industrial opera- 
tions that are based upon incomplete combus- 
tion; namely, the operation of gas producers 
and water gas machines. 


Gas Producers 


In former years, a gas producer was a fire- 
brick chamber with a closed top, in which coal 
was burned with about half the air supply that 
was required for complete combustion. As the 
result, an atom of carbon combined with an 
atom of oxygen to form carbon monoxide gas, 
CO. (This combustible gas is more economical 
as fuel than raw coal when the manufacturing 
operation is of sufficient size to justify the 
equipment.) The modern producers are 
equipped with a steam jet also; air is impelled 
into the producer by the steam pressure. 


The incandescent carbon decomposes the 
H,O—steam—, appropriates the O to make 
CO, and liberates the hydrogen (H:) which 
mixes with the CO gas. A typical analysis of 
Droaucer gas is as follows: H,.19%:-CO) 27; 
CH, 2%; CO.; 4%; Nitrogen (N), 52%. .Pro- 
ducer gas is the least efficient of all the common 
fuel gases, but has several other advantages 
that cause it to be widely used in manufacturing 
plants. The heats in a gas producer are not so 
high as to be a strain on a high-grade brick, 
but the texture of the brick should be dense, to 
resist the action of the steam, and the work- 
manship of the brick should be practically 
perfect. 


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Page twenty-seven 


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A blast furnace for the production of pig 
iron, is in effect (if not by intention) a gas 
producer. The coke is first burned to COs, but 
on coming in contact with incandescent coke 
farther up in the furnace the gas gives up one 
atom of its oxygen, according to the equation 
CO.+C=2CO. This carbon monoxide gas is 
the most powerful reducing agent in the separa- 
tion of the metallic iron of the ore from its 
oxides. A large quantity of this combustible 
gas is taken off from the top of the furnace, 
and is used to heat .the checker-brick in the hot 
blast stoves, for firing boilers and driving gas 
engines. 


Water Gas he. generator of a water gas set 
is similar to the gas producer 
that has just been discussed. A 
generator is a large chamber which is heated to 
a much higher temperature than the ordinary 
gas producer, the minimum temperature 
required for the production of water gas being 
about 1800 degrees F. The fuel bed of coke is 
heated to incandescence by a blast of air. This 
raises the heat in the generator to the point at 
which steam is converted to CO and Hz, 
when a jet of steam is turned into the 
generator. As this operation reduces the 
temperature of the fuel chamber, the steam is 
then turned off while the air blast again is 
turned on for the purpose of restoring the work- 
ing temperature. The air blast is usually on 
for about four minutes. Thus these alternate 
operations are kept up. The air blast and the 
products of combustion go off through the 
stack; only the gas that is made from the 
decomposition of steam goes to the carburetor 
—hence the term “Water Gas.” 


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Page twenty-eight 


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The water-gas, as it comes from the gen- 
erator does not contain all the desired elements. 
It is, therefore, conducted into a second large 
steel chamber, called the carburetor, which is 
lined with fire-brick and filled with fire-brick 
checker work. Some authorities state that the 
brick should be spaced3.1 inches apart togivethe 
best results. 


These checker brick have been pre-heated, 
and are continually re-heated to about 1350 
to 1400 degrees F. at regular intervals while 
the air blast is on (via the generator). Then 
the air blast is turned off, a spray of pre- 
heated gas oil (a by-product of petroleum) is 
injected through a spray in the top of the 
carburetor, so that the spray of oil will impinge 
upon the hot brick-work. 


The oil is thus volatilized or gasified. The 
resulting oil-gas and water gas is then con- 
ducted to the super-heater where the various 
gases formed are amalgamated. The gas 
leaves the super-heater at temperatures about 


1300 to 1400 degrees F. 
The fire-brick have much to do with the 


yields and smooth working of a water-gas plant. 
The carburetor checker brick must be refrac- 
tory, the better to withstand the heats for 
considerable periods of time without fusion; 
they must withstand the frequent fluctuations 
of temperature without deterioration; they 
must not absorb the oil or carbon deposit, but 
must quickly vaporize it. 


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Page twenty-nine 


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Gomhin el Other terms for chemically com- 

bined water are ‘‘Water of 
Water Constitution’ and ‘Water of 
Crystallization.’’ Several rocks have a certain 
amount of water, HO, held in combination 
with their characteristic ingredients. The rocks 
of this character that are most familiar are 
fire-clays and quartz. Being chemically com- 
bined, the hydrogen and oxygen do not, strictly 
speaking, exist as water; the quantities of these 
elements are present in these rocks, however, 
in the same proportions that constitute water, 
H,O. There is no appearance of moisture 
because of the presence of combined water. At 
temperatures of about 675 degrees F., combined 
water is driven off. The expulsion of combined 
water from fire-clays, which occurs at about 675 
degrees F., is called “‘Calcining.’’ The clays 
thus burned are called “Calcine”’ or “Grog.” 
A plastic clay so treated loses its plasticity 
permanently. As fire-clays contain from || to 
14 per cent of combined water, the loss of such 
a large portion of its bulk by calcination causes 
the mass to contract or shrink. Burned clays 
or grog do not absorb water and for that reason 
they are used in the manufacture of brick and 
tile in which a porous texture is desirable, and 
also to facilitate drying freshly-molded pieces 
without injury. 


When limestone is burned in a lime _ kiln, 
not only H.O, but also carbon di-oxide, COs, is 
driven off, leaving “‘quick’’ lime which is CaO. 
On exposure to the air for a long time, lime 
mortar slowly combines with the trace of CO, 
in the air, and thus becomes something like its 
original substance—limestone. After a_sub- 
stance has taken up water in chemical com- 
bination, it is said to be a hydrated compound. 


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Page thirty 


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= INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC WEIGHTS = 
= 1916 = 
= _ | Electro- = 
= we) X chem. - 
4 Element a Weight | ¢ equiva- Melting Boiling — 
= E < lents, g. points points on 
= WY > per amp.- — 
— Ke ae 
= Aluminum. .| Al 27a 3 3368 658.7 1800.0 = 
= Antimony...| Sb 120.2 3 1.4966 630.0 1460.0 eres 
= Argon.2 3... A 39.88 OF eee aks —188.0 —186.0 hers. 
= Arsenic..... As 74.96 3 0.9324 850.0 450.02 a 
= Barium..... Ba 137237 2 2.5619 85070 05S = 
= Bismuth Bi 208.0 3 2.5854 7A AW 1440.0 = 
= Boron:...... B 11.0 Bl ine: 2 ten fect ae 2350) Oe eee ae = 
= Bromine Br 79.92 I 2.9814 —7.3 58.75 = 
= Cadmium Cd | 112.40 2 2.0955 320.9 778.0 = 
= Caesium Cs 132.81 [Se ea eet 2070 i ceo = 
= Calcium Ca 40.07 2 0.7477 STOLO Saal ewes = 
cae Carbon... G 12.05 4 0.1118 53600105 ere een = 
—~ Cerium..... Ce 140.25 AS ee hd 6230 al neta eee = 
es Chlorine. . Gl 35.46 I 1.3220 —101.5 — 37.6 = 
- Chromium. .| Cr 52.0 3 0.6476 1520 to, >Fe| 2200.0 i 
= Cobalt)... .: Co 58.97 2 1.1000 61037 Sen sear = 
— Columbium .| Cb 93.1 Sig acre AEN & 1950-2200 apa the fae = 
= Copper..... Cu 63.57 Z 1.1858 1083 .0 2100.0 = 
= ID vemrociinie ml varie LOZ 998 nlc elec rok amet |hiasiyaie seciesielllmm eos <3 = 
-— Erbium..... Er 1G 75 Zoe leet le ees Pe ae Renin on Bivnegal Mere [th sacite gt Sees = 
aaa Europium...| Eu 152 Oa ee | Oe antes Aree a Pe be c8: ce ny oli ceo aoa: = 
= Fluorine....| F 19.0 I 0.7085 —223.0 —187.0 = 
= em gemimmer Mees 1 97 oD.) |c ae, Sheree). fake foie oS aie one ello os = 
= Gallium..... Ga GORD Diy eter era Sri s 30s Eales ee = 
= Germanium .|} Ge (Aah ia ee Se. I ee een ee 958).0 pelea sys 4 
a Glucinum...| Gl oh LIke i ee Ds tty ew S002 0 Gee eae = 
oer Golda ue. Au [Ff 3 2.4513 LOGS). ODMR pices: — 
= Helium..... He AOO2 |e OF tere eee —271.9 —268 .8 aa 
— Holmium i bey. Air | RABE SPCR Mies Bacal Ae cee gg ie, || Semaine a Ne eee enor uiereetn = 
= Hydrogen H 1.008} 1 0.03759 —259.0 —252.8 — 
= Indium..... In (Te ive Sa ts ea a a ee [54 o5 Se lcryeeeanise aa 
= Iodine...... I 126.92 1 4.7303 114.0 184.35 = 
= Iridium..... Ir 193.1 Awl ary nape ee 230050 saw easercaeake — 
= Tron ee Fe 55.84 2 1.0404 1530+ 5] 2450.0 — 
= Krypton....| Kr O2EO2 Meee Me memati aces —169.0 —151.7 = 
= Lanthanum..| La (VERS a0 alll seoy teeter oie nat ena ee: SIOCO Pes ewe aes = 
= Bead fae. Pb | 207.20 2 3.8613 327.4 1525.0 = 
a Lithium..... Li 6.94 | 0.2622 186) Ose —_ 
a Lutecium...| Lu 175 OB dee es eee ah ae Bons ee toes ek | Ee ee = 
= Magnesium..| Mg 24.32 2 0.4531 651.0 1120.0 _ 
ae Manganese..}| Mn 54.93 2, [0255 1260+ 20 1900.0 = 
ad Mercury....| Hg | 200.6 x 7.4803 —38.7 357.0 = 
a Molybdenum| Mo 96.0 2 1.7900 250020 Be ltieee _ 
= Neodymium.) Nd» | 144.3 |... .)........% 840 ORM ees non 
= = 
oa 1 In those cases in which a metal has two valences, the valence = 
pout given corresponds to the electrochemical equivalent, and may not — 
= necessarily be the commoner one. a} 
= 2 Sublimes. — 
= 3 Commercial metal, about 1480° C. = 
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Page thirty-two 


CALTATUTATATATIATAAATLATMADNTEOTATINING 


= INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC WEIGHTS 
= 1916 

=_ Continued 

— Electro- 

= oS rz chem. 

= Element 2 Weight | ¢ equiva- Melting Boiling 
— E < lents, g. points points 
= n > | per amp.- 

pod r. 

= Neon ss. Ne | 20.0 Oe eos ae 253, 0 PS ee, 
= Nickel...... Ni 58.68 2 1.0945 [seve Sy 
= Niton eee Nt | 222.4 Os EER eee 8 hy aw oo 
— Nitrogen....| N 14.01 3 0.1745 —210.5 —195.7 
— Osmium....| Os 19029. 28 | eras ae eee 2700: 02-7 
_ Oxygen..... O 16.00 2, 0.2983 —218.0 —183.0 
oo Palladium...| Pd 106.7 2 1.9951 15505 00-5 pete 
= Phosphorus..| P 31 045) 2e ee cee 44.1 287.0 
= Platinum. ..| Pt 195.2 4 .8206 17550 alee aaa 
= Potassium...| K 39.10 1 1.4584 62.3 667 .0 
= Praseody- 

= mium..... |Pr 140 89 eee ie ee ee 940 -.Q.7 a) Se ees 
= Radium..... Ra 226.0 7 Ma re eee, 9000.22 
= Rhodium....| Rh | 102.9 Sigh | Sige aeons 1940).0 99a eee 
== Rubidium...} Rb 85 £45) | 56s Se ee oe 38:0 Ae See eee 
— Ruthenium. "Ru 4910) 07 Fis ee SEF O50) One et eee 
a Samarium...| Sa 150, 42512204) loots eee 1350: 0 2% |e aeeeene 
= Scandium...| Sc zt ed ME AAA Laratnetned set 1200.0 (2) | eee 
= Selenium....| Se 79.2 2 1.477 218.5 690.0 
= Silicon.......|| Si 28.3 4 0.2638 1420.0 TNE 
= Silver= bse Ag 107.88 I 4.0248 961.0 1955.0 
oe Sodium..... Na 23.00 | 0.8596 O72) 742.0 
= >805,850< 

= Strontium...| Sr 87 .63 2 1.6333 SCacBay |e 
= Sulphur... 2155 32.06 2 0.5980 116.5 444, 
om Tantalum...| Ta LoS ae kee ee ae 285003 335 eee 
— Tellurium...| Te [2755 7 2.379 451.0 1390. 
= Terbium....| Tb 1592 yo 5 eee ee | 
= Thallium....| Tl 204" Qo Forres ee ee 302.0 1700. 
= Dhorrams 325|) Phe (232.4 3| 20S eee >1700,0< Peale eee 
= Thulium, |.¢| Fm.) 168.5 °|.40.)0> 5. 52) oe ae ee 
es Inet eer Ou 118.7 2 2.2188 231.9 2270.0 
= Titanium...| Ti 48.1 4 0.4490 {1795.04 15.0]........ 
= Tungsten...| W 184.0 6 1.1437 3267. Sa ane 
= Uranium....| U 238.22 Woe Si eee Near Vio. )3 ee 
= Vanadium...| V S12 Os ee ee eae 1720, 02220. C ean 
= enon......| Xe | 130.2 (Ulsan ee —140.0 —109.0 
= Ytterbium Y¥ be [al Z3 SS Salle ell ben eer 1800207) 3 eee 
= Yttrium Yt B65 7 TA ee BGs eens, 1:20050:(?))| ee 
a ZANCM On ee Hd, 65.37 2 1.2194 419.3 918.0 
= Zirconium...| Zr 90564 |\ner eek eee 2350::0"42)) Ree 
= See footnotes on page 31. 

“7, 


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Page thirty-three 


Page thirty-four 


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Page thirty-five 


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GCHAR TERSIN, 


“Following Through” at the 
Walsh Plant 


"THE quality of a product depends upon the 

manufacturing ideals built into it; conse- 
quently, a knowledge of just how WALSH Fire 
Brick is made. is helpful when determining 
the suitability of refractory materials for your 
own needs. It is naturally difficult to describe 
adequately the manufacture of fire-brick, but 
with the help of the illustrations appearing in 
this chapter, we have attempted to show how 
fire-bricks are made in the modern WALSH 
Plant. 


In recent years the engineering profession 
has been giving increasing attention to the 
technology of refractories. A forward move- 
ment in the manufacture of fire-clay products, 
as represented by the construction of the new 
plant, was therefore timely, when it was erected 
in 1917. Operations were begun in 1918. The 
initial producing capacity was about 150, 000 
brick daily, with ample provision for expansion. 


Access to the clay deposits under- 
lying the plant site and adjoining 
territory is by means of a concrete double 
shaft. The main entry extends back hundreds 
of feet past rooms that have already been 
mined. The entire mine is dry, electrically 
lighted and electrically equipped. After the 
face of the clay has been “‘shot down,”’ it is 
inspected while being loaded by hand into mine 
cars (Plate 3B). 


Mines 


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Page thirty-six 


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Page thirty-seven 


PLATE 6—Calcine Kilns. 


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Page thirty-eight 


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Page thirty-nine 


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As a comparatively thin section of clay is 
being mined from a deposit which extends 
several feet above and below the mine proper, 
the clay is remarkably free from foreign 
substances. 


For years prior to the construction of the 
WALSH Plant—the third WALSH factory— 
the company had owned in Missouri large areas 
of clay lands, representative of the purest in 
the state. Three varieties of clay; plastic, 
semi-flint and hard-flint are available in three 
strata of the mine contiguous to the Vandalia 
plant. Surveys show that the entire clay body 
is remarkably free from impurities. Hard-flint 
clays are also shipped to this plant from exten- 
sive mines from which the surface earth or 
“‘“over-burden”’ has been stripped for the pur- 
pose of mining the clay by daylight or open-pit 
methods. 


After the cars are loaded, they are 
conveyed by “‘Sam,’’ “‘Red’”’ and 
other well-known Missouri mules to the “‘trip- 
station” (Plate 4A), where trains are made up 
for the electric locomotives to haul to the 
hoists (Plate 4B). Once placed on the hoist, 
the manufacturing process may be said to have 
started, for at the top the clay is automatically 
dumped into the scale hopper (Plate 5), which 
in turn drops its burden into the first set of 
roll crushers. 


Mixing 


A large part of the crude lump clay is taken 
to the Calcine Kilns (Plate 6), where it is 
burned to expel combined water. This burned 
clay is called ‘‘Grog’”’ or “‘Calcine.”’ It is later 
ground and screened in the manner described 
for raw clays, and then mixed with raw clay 
in the manufacture of refractories. 


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Page forty 


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Page forty-one 


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Pagefforty-two 


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Page forty-three 


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Because clay is gathered from all parts of 
the extensive mines, there is always a thorough 
admixture, but this is made doubly sure by 
passing it through a roll crusher and distributor, 
by means of which the material is conveyed to 
the various crude clay storage bins. The 
purpose of this careful mixing is to obtain a 
uniform average analysis and general character 
of brick-making material. 


The third and final crushing is by means of 
“Dry Pans’ (Plate 8B) of which there are now 
four at the WALSH Plant. Two are soon to 
be added. Perforations in the pan bottoms 
pass the granular clay via elevators, to the 
screens on the top floor, where the various 
sizes of prepared clay are separated and dis- 
tributed by conveyors (Plate 9) to the prepared- 
clay bins. The granular texture of a brick or 
tile is specified to suit the purpose which it is to 
serve, and the storage bins at all times contain 
material screened to meet any requirement. 


Walsh “WALSH Brands” are made by 

four processes— Special Hand 
Processes Made, ‘Tempered,’ ‘Semi- 
open, and ‘‘Open.”’ Tile and specially de- 
signed shapes, with but few exceptions, can only 
be made by hand. The materials are ““‘pugged”’ or 
mixed with water in “Wet-pans’’ (Plate 10) to 
the desired consistency, and emptied by auto- 
matic unloaders into steel buckets which are 
transported via an electric monorail conveyor to 
the molders’ tables. 


Hand Molded The molder’s task is to pro- 

duce a homogeneous tile or 
shape, free from interior defects or strains, and 
with a smooth, sharp finish. 


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Page forty-four 


Page forty-five 


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Special care is required that the shapes be 
dried properly. Perfectly molded pieces may 
be ruined during the drying process, although 
no defect may be apparent to the untrained 
eye. Plates 12A and 12B show some views of 
our drying floors. This department is con- 
stantly under the close superintendence of 
experts. 


qd Standard sizes of bricks that must 
stand unusual “wear and tear,” 
abrasion, pressure, blast, chemical action, 
clinker, etc.,are made by the Tempered process. 
The clays are mechanically pugged with suff- 
cient water to form a stiff, plastic mass, and 
are then forced by an auger machine through 
a die approximately the size of the face of a 
brick. This dense column of clay is auto- 
matically cut into “‘clots’’ or blanks, which are 
immediately formed by presses (Plate 13) into 
WALSH Tempered Brick. The pressed bricks 
are stacked in open order on dryer cars and 
placed in the tunnel dryers (Plate 15A) for 
drying before being set in kilns for burning. 


Tempere 


In former years, if a Tempered 
brick was too dense for a specific 
purpose, the consumer was apt to use a _ soft- 
mud’ brick, which in the standard sizes, was 
re-pressed on hand presses. The texture of 
such a brick is friable and lacks the crushing 
and breaking strength, in most cases, that is 
the usual requirement in these latter days. As 
consumers found by experience that coarseness 
of grain had nothing to do with resistance to 
heat, they also found that a texture somewhat 
finer and produced under high pressure, yet 
sufficiently porous to withstand frequent and 
wide changes of temperature, provided the 
physical strength modern engineering demands. 


Semi-Open 


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Such a brick is the ““Semi-Open.”’ Plate 14 
illustrates the machines which form brick of 
this texture. ‘Semi-Open” brick can be 
readily cut by the mason’s tools, are sharp and 
accurately finished, and are uniform in size. 


The proper burning of clay wares 
required both scientific knowledge 
and suitable equipment. The equipment for 
burning at WALSH Plant was evolved by 
practical fire-brick operators in co-operation 
with engineering specialists. As “‘green’”’ brick 
must be bone-dry before burning, tunnel dryers 
(Plate 15A) are provided. The kilns are fifty- 
two in number, each with a capacity of 48,000 
bricks. Each kiln is equipped with an electric 
pyrometer which registers its temperatures at 
a central station in charge of the foreman of 
this department. 


Burning 


Producer gas is used for fuel. The raising 
or lowering of kiln temperatures, and the 
general conduct of the kilns while on fire is 
always under complete control of the operator 
in the instrument room. This fuel does not 
discolor the ware, which is “‘Bright”’ in appear- 
ance after being burned. Plate 15B shows a 
battery of kilns being charged or “‘Set’’ with 
bricks as they are brought from the dryer by 
the electric transfer car. Plate 16A shows this 
battery after the fires are on. Plate 16B is a 
view of the discharge side of a kiln battery 
with the loading tracks. (The square upright 
objects are gas flues.) 


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PLATE 16B—Discharge End of Kilns and Loading Dock—Storage Sheds 


Page fifty-one 


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Tracks—40 Box-Car Capacity. 


BES. 


Hoist—Walsh 


Page fifty-two 


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Annealing For the purpose of finishing clay 
products without interior strains, 
warps, cracks, etc., they must be carefully 
annealed. The scientific control of the kilns, 
which is mentioned in a preceding paragraph, 
makes perfect annealing possible. The kilns 
are fired in groups and cooled in groups. When 
burning is completed, one kiln receives the 
slightly cooler air from the adjoining kiln, and 
in turn passes it on to the next one. This slow 
cooling not only eliminates the danger of actual 
injury to the contents of the kiln, but it 
toughens and strengthens the product. 


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The Walsh Brands 
O MAINTAIN that any one brand of brick 


is suitable for every purpose is just as absurd 
as to claim that one medicine will cure any 
ailment. Although space is too limited to give 
a detailed description of all the varied uses of 
the WALSH Brands, some of the more impor- 
tant general purpose uses are given. WALSH 
Brick of several grades are regularly carried in 
stock sizes, under the following brands: 


WALSH Tempered The WALSH ¢ Line 
WALSH Semi-Open 


WALSH XX WALSH X 
Blast Furnace his department is under the 
and direct supervision of an 
Rolling Mill executive of wide experience 


in blast furnace and steel mill 
practice. The consumer's viewpoint is ours. 
All the processes that modern practice has 
approved, are applied to the products of our 
Iron and Steel Department. 


Ladle A special product of WALSH clays 
Lining which is notably successful and long- 
lived in both iron and steel ladles. 


Malleable The testimony of our malleable 
Melting iron customers, as to the number 
Furnaces of heats rendered by their bungs 

as well as from the side-walls, 
must be of interest to foundrymen who have 
felt the need of a wider market for satisfactory 
material for these purposes. One customer 
writes, “The losing of a bung since using your 
brick is something almost unheard of.’ The 
side-wall brick withstand the slag action and 
the wash of the metal exceptionally well. 


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Page fifty-four 


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Boiler Modern steam engineering has 
Furnaces created a more urgent demand for 

urnace material that will stand 
the high heats required in the newer large 
installations. The use of fuel oil and powdered 
coal to an increasing extent, the greater height 
of the furnace walls, improved automatic 
stokers, the demand for high efficiency generally 
—all these factors have focused attention upon 
fire-brick equal to every requirement. The 
records made by WALSH Brands in large power 
plants will interest operating executives. Many 
sizes and shapes besides those illustrated are 
carried in stock; tell us your requirements. 
Special designs will be made to order. 


Water-Gas_ For the generator a well-burned, 
Lining low-shrinkage brick of great 
| strength and toughness is re- 
quired, because of the frequent removal of 
clinker and the action of steam. For the 
carburetor, a checker and lining brick has been 
developed that is uncommonly durable. Being 
made from a refractory mixture, the checker 
work is taken down with but a slight loss of 
brick. The texture is such as quickly gasifies 
the oils with the least deposition of carbon. 
WALSH linings are almost always the means 
of increasing the yield of gas with reduced 
consumption of oil. 


Rotary Kiln These blocks, being practically 
Linings neutral as to expansion and 

contraction, hold the coating 
which is readily taken on by the hot zone liners. 
The materials for the cooler portions of the 
kiln are made of refractory clays for safety. 
Their resistance to abrasion, together with the 
durability of the hot zone blocks, have made 
WALSH Liners popular with cement manu- 
facturers. 


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Page fifty-five 


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ZSSHUUMASAEEUASAE LEER EET ESTTTIDUELEEE, (eA 1) WU) 


ul! 
Checker Brick— A development for maxi- 
Open Hearth and mum service under the 
Glass Furnaces conflicting conditions of 


most checker chambers. 
It furnishes great resistance to slags, flue dust 
and spalling action, and yet provides for proper 
absorption and radiation of heat. All regular 
sizes and shapes are carried in stock. 


Cupola Linings Because the cupola could 

e ‘‘daubed”’ every morning 
many foundrymen were accustomed to pay 
little attention to the quality of the linings. 
It is a fact, now generally accepted, that the 
highest grade of fire-clay material in cupolas is 
real economy. 


Forging and_ The use of fuel oil in a small 
Re-heating combustion chamber, with the 
Furnaces hard driving practiced in most 

forge shops, has developed a 
demand for a super-brick for lining these fur- 
naces. We have been successful in supplying 
the need. 


Petroleum This phase of our business is 
Refineries equal in importance to any on 

our books. Operators of inter- 
national repute are consistent users of WALSH 


Brands. 


Lead, Zinc Many notably high-grade clays 
and Copper fail to meet the severe service 
Smelting requirements of these indus- 


tries. WALSH Brands have . 


been developed by many years use in eastern 
and western plants, and are exceptionally well 
adapted to these purposes. 


Page fifty-six 


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Shapes Madeto A variety of clay mixtures 
Special Design __15 used in the Special Shapes 

and Tile Department, a 
part of which is illustrated on pages 42 and 45. 
The WALSH Plant has daily producing capac- 
ity of more than 155 tons of special shapes and 
tile, and is, therefore, prepared to serve the 
needs of the trade effectively. Full information 
regarding the conditions governing the use of 
such material should always be furnished with 
the inquiry or order, so that proper material 
may be specified by us. 


Space in this book does not permit a detailed 
account of the service being rendered by 
WALSH Brands in many lines of industry 
other than those described. Special attention 
has been given to the material that is most 
frequently the subject of correspondence. We 
solicit the opportunity to submit detailed infor- 
mation concerning the application of our 
products to industries, such as: 


Annealing Ovens and Furnaces, 
Coke Ovens, 

Clay-burning Kilns, 

Enameling Furnaces, 

Frit Furnaces, 

Lime Kilns, 

Locomotives, 


Muffles, 
Steel Treating—Heating Furnaces. 


Our Engineering Department is always 
ready to consult with manufacturers on their 
refractory problems. 


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Page fifty-seven 


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Page fifty-eight 


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9" (45'-15") * 23" 9" 45%" (22° 8") 


MITITITITITIT TT TE CCC 


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Page fifty-nine 


. AC CAY Bs 

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STANDARD 9° SHAPES 


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QUAN EUUUAA UAE CEUTU ATURE TTTTTTT MMT 
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LARGER THAN 9" SHAPES - 


133” N°] WEDGE. 138” N22 WEDGE. 
1D2'* 6x (3-23) _ 135"* 6x (3"- 23°) 


133’ STRAIGHT. 
133" x 6" x 23" 
ALSO 133°* 6"x 3“ 


133” N°] KEY. . 133" N22- KEY. 
135’ (6"-5") = 23° 13z"*(6"-43") x 22° 
ALSO 135% (675") x3" ALSO 135*(6-48 )* 3” 


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Page sixty-one 


Eo iy ' 
ATTIC TOOT AMATO a | | NATIT 
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OHAPES FOR MALLEABLE FURNACES 


2CK€E 


ARCH BUNG. N210!l SQUARE BUNG. N2103 ARCH BUNG. 
9"s 43% (23°- 23’) 1B" « 457x 3" 13*~ 45" ( 3'x 2%’) 


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Page sixty-two 


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Page sixty-four 


Oo". 9" STRAIGHT 
O%x9'%.32" 
ALSO 132°.9'x35" 


9%9° ARCH 
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FOR ARCHS EM OW: 06) &50 INSIDE DIAMLTER 
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N° OF DIAMETER N° TO 
BLOCK INSIDE OUTSIDE CIRCLE 

30 : Ae" 

36 : 46" 

A2 x 54” 

48 3 60" 

54 ; 66" 

60 is Ue 

66 ‘ 78" 

72 ~ &4" 


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Page sixty-six 


G 
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N°2277 ARCH TILE FOR FURNACE DOOR 
N°277A JAMB TILE FOR FUDNACE DOOD 


N° c58-X 


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Page sixty-seven 


SUERTE 
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High Alumina For the reason that the Oxide 
Refractories of Aluminum, or Alumina, 

resists the effect of heat up 
to 3722 degrees F., there has been a desire on 
the part of brick manufacturers to utilize vari- 
ous highly aluminous materials for the manu- 
facture of refractories. In former years efforts 
toward this end were not entirely successful. 
Brick made of bauxite, an ore of aluminum, 
were not capable of withstanding changes of 
temperature, and they shrank excessively at 
working temperatures. 


UNECE ECLCCC LU ROLULLCRRALULLLL CCEA OODOC ALP D CO DC RCCL UULLLLULG 


The Walsh ¢& Brands of refractories repre- 
sent a new development in highly aluminous 
materials. These bricks do not shrink or spall 
in service, to any considerable degree. The 
standard 9-inch sizes and special shapes are 
produced with graduated contents of alumina. 
The resistance of these brands to heat is indi- 
cated by the temperatures at which samples 
soften in the laboratory, ranging from Cone 
34-35 (representing about 3310 degrees F., by 
Orton’s temperature table, or about 3180 
degrees F. by the table of the Bureau of Stand- 
ards), to Cone 37-38 (about 3416 degrees F., 
according to Orton, or 3290 degrees F., accord- 
ing to the Bureau of Standards). 


The Walsh ¢* Line is recommended for 
equipment which is uncommonly destructive of 
fire-brick—such as electric furnaces, high 
powered boiler furnaces, large forges, rotary 
kiln linings for lime and Portland cement 
manufacturing, etc 


AU HECETUO EOL EEO EOE eee 


S 
Ag 
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CAIN EE 


Page sixty-eight 


f-— & 
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SR errr emer serene A A NN RA A A 


JELIY ED 
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& 


‘“Mon-O-Frax’’ High Mon-O-FraxCement 
Temperature Cement 18 recommended for 

use as mortar for 
brick laying, or as a binder for ground fire- 
brick when ramming-in patches or baffles. 
When used as mortar it should be carefully 
mixed with water, so as to have the “thick 
soup consistency without allowing the water 
to run off. The joints should be as thin as 
possible. 


As a binder for ground fire-brick, the mois- 
tened Mon-O-Frax should be well worked to 
develop maximum plasticity. Use as stiff as 
possible. This cement is highly refractory, sets 
hard in air, and is practically neutral as to 
expansion and contraction. 


Mon-O-Frax Cement is shipped dry in cloth 
bags. 


InALs y 
i) H LAY 
?ObUaES CO 
a ST Louls. _ 


STU EUEEEe 


4 


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GIMME EE EEO O 1HTTTTINUTTTT FTTH TTS 


= Page sixty-nine 


PLATE 19A—Walsh Material Being Installed in Furnace of: Illinois 
Glass Company, Alton, Illinois. (Eleven Furnaces at This Plant.) 


Ri ane BR ON 


Lo PLATE 17B—Furnace of the Illinois Glass Co., Alton, IIl., Walsh 
L. Material Installed. 


Page seventy 


AQUI SSMUTTTTTTTTATTTATTATTTTTATLY, 


G 
ge: 


CHAPTER VI 


Glass Furnace Material 


‘THE Glasshouse Refractories Department, 

the pioneer organization of the WALSH 
institution, is located in St. Louis, near the 
affiliated factories of the Mississippi Glass 
Company. 


There are advantages in being a pioneer. Our 
working force—foremen, superintendent, assist- 
ants, etc.—is composed of men who have been 
employed at this plant continuously for many 
years. Their understanding of the extreme 
care that is exercised in the selection and prepa- 
ration of the raw materials, and their skill in 
molding and finishing the products have been 
highly developed during years of specializing on 
the manufacture of glass furnace material. 


Manufacture The clays used in the manu- 

facture of Tank Blocks (flux 
and refractory), as glass furnace linings are 
commonly termed, are the best obtainable. 
Notwithstanding this fact, the selected plastic 
clays are thoroughly weathered and ‘‘washed”’ 
at the factory to remove the smallest particles 
of impurities that may be present. 


Some of the washed clay is burned in the 
form of rectangular blocks (Plate 20). Definite 
proportions of this washed and burned material 
are ground and screened. This is an important 
part of the final mixture from which Tank 
Blocks are made. 

When all the ingredients of a WALSH Glass 
Furnace Block have been thoroughly mixed 
and pugged to a plastic mass, the prepared 
clay is stored in great piles for maturing and 
“aging” (Plate 21). 


ZATION 


CIM UCC OC 


B 


VATA NNT O TUTTO OHTTTRTTTATTTANY 


Page seventy-one 


Page seventy-two 


PLATE 20—Burnt Washed Clay Used in Glass Refractories Manufacture. 


CUAL ALU | SUT 


“yy 
72 


SS 


4 


These piles are kept for months covered with 
wet cloths to prevent drying out and hardening. 
During this time a mysterious process is going 
on within the mass which adds a valuable bond- 
ing quality to the materials. 


After the right period of “‘aging,’’ the clay 
is again mixed by automatic machinery. A 
stock of this “‘aged”’ prepared clay, always kept 
in the right condition for molding, is kept on 
each molding floor of the Glass Refractories 
Department (Plate 22). 


The molded shapes are allowed to remain 
on the floor for several months, so that they 
may dry slowly and thoroughly without crack- 
ing, warping or developing interior imperfec- 
tions. Plates 23, 24 and 25 show that flux and 
refractory material is not only heavy but often 
of fairly intricate design. When the blocks are 
absolutely dry they are dressed to true surfaces 
and angles as per blue prints. 


Setting large blocks for burning (Plate 26) 
is a job that requires experience and great care. 
Burning, likewise, must be done under the 
direction of skilled men. 


The neighboring plants of the Mississippi 
Glass Company, in which are produced wired 
glass and figured sheet glass, serve the refrac- 
tories plant in the capacity of a practical testing 
laboratory—to their mutual advantage. Thus, 
the clay materials offered to the trade are those 
that have been thoroughly demonstrated in 
actual practice. 


UU TCU Eee ee 
Vs 
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CHITIN TUCO @ xxIIIoiimmy 


Page seventy-three 


‘Jue[q sIno-y 3Q—[eo}yeYL 9eUINY sse[H JoOJ ,Sulsy,, Ae[Q paiedsiqg—|{zZ 


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Page seventy-five 


MELEE PE UTTER LULPL LPL TIT 
eee SSE OEE 


PLATE 23—Blocks and Special Shapes Weighing 3000 Pounds Are Not Uncommon. 


Teen 
ee PEER UEERECESESEAB SSIS R 


Page seventy-six 


STU ee 7 \2 MTT AN 


WY e iz: 
Flux Blocks The stock sizes are fifty-three 
in number, and range from size 
6x12x18 to 14x18x24. The most popular sizes 
are listed as follows: 


= Trued for Trued for Trued for = 
= 12” Wall 16” Wall 18” Wall = 
= 12x12x18 12x16x18 12x18x18 = 
= 12x12x24 12x16x24 12x18x24 = 
= 12x12x30 12x16x30 12x18x30 = 
= 12x12x36 12x16x36 12x18x36 = 
= 12x12x42 12x16x42 12x18x42 = 
= 12x12x45 12x16x45 12x18x45 = 
= 12x12x48 12x16x48 12x18x48 = 
= 12x18x18 zs 
a 12x18x24 = 
= 12x18x30 Miscellaneous = 
= 12x18x36 = 
= 12x20x24 12x24x42 12x36x36 = 
= 12x24x24 12x24x48 12x36x42 = 
= 12x24x30 12x36x48 = 
= 12x24x36 = 
a Tank Trued Bottom Stock = 
= Blocks for 12” Sizes = 
= 12x12x24 12x16x30 = 
= 12x12x30 = 12x1l6x36 SS 
= 12x12x36 = 12x 18x24 = 
= 12xl6x24. =12x18x30 = 
= 12x18x36 = 
= Refractory Stock Sizes = 
= Blocks 6x12x18 6x12x30 = 
= 6x1 2x24 6x12x36 = 
WM, SS 


~ < 
\) 
JUVUDUUDUCATADEDEPERD AA RD ODED ADODSLIOEDATONTIEUAS 


Page seventy-seven 


4, 
ALAMEDA 


‘usIsaq ul 9} ed1I}UT 


yng ‘Aaeazyy ATUC ION P1Y Sedeyg ay} Jo aUI0S—FZ ALV Id 


Page seventy-eight 


CUO ch LOMA 


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Ss Za 


S4iny (Ow? 


A Complete Individual plant conditions 
Service vary to so great an extent that 

it would be impracticable to 
list in this book all the detailed dimensions, 
weights, etc. of all the articles which we make 
for glass furnaces. The WALSH Engineering 
Department, with its specialists in glass furnace 
practice, is always ready to serve glass manu- 
facturers. Best results are obtained through 
these personal efforts of our representatives. 
We give prompt attention to inquiries for the 
following items: 


Arch Blocks 

Breast Wall Brick 

A. Q. Jack Arches 

Blow Furnace Rings 

Bottom Blocks for Lehr Floor—Refrac- 
tory Material 

Bridge Cover Blocks 

Cap Skew Blocks 

Checker Tile | 

Dog House Angle Blocks—Flux Grade 

Dog House Angle Blocks—Pot Clay 

rade 

Dog House Arch Blocks 

Floaters 

Gathering Ring Stones 

Gathering Hoods—Flux Grade 

Glory Hole Rings 

Glory Hole Solid Cap Bricks 

Lehr Tile 

Mantle Blocks for Flattening Ovens 

Muffle Tile 

Natural Gas Burner Blocks 

Owens Machine Plugs 

Pillar—Inverted Arch and Eye Brick 


SoC LEE ET LEE eee ee 
“1 
- 1 S eenT Fervor ao rnp TTT COTTA TOTTI 


Plugs 
Continued on Page 8] 
“y = OS 
AMMVANNYD ITAL LTVADALDEAMADAGLUTAEDDIING @ TTT TT TU TANTANTHUTTTTOHTATITAN 
Saas Page seventy-nine 


As RNA ERE eel Rel etal MS ft aol atl Bd EE a A a A A a at AE SR ERE R A  S 


*Sulsso1qd 


IO} 


| 


Apeasy syoo0[q sutmoyus ‘jue[d stnoT 


39 94} Ul IOO[q SuldAiq eB Jo MaIA—G¢Z 


Page eighty 


LO 

WANG MUO LLL 
a “, 
Cig: 


QUEUE 
\ 


Z 


GLASS FURNACE ITEMS 
Continued from Page 79 

Port E. Blocks 
Pots—Thread 
Pot Setting Brick 
Producer Blocks 
Regenerative Furnace Arch and Skew 
Recuperator Tile 
Revolving Furnace 
Ring— Tank—Gathering 
Shade Stones 
Shear Cakes 
Special Producer Blocks 
Tank Rings 
Thread Pots 
Tuck Stones 
Thimble Blocks 
Throat Blocks 


Clays With the wide variety of special shapes 
which we furnish to glassmanufacturers, 
we supply every requirement for clays: 


Prepared Pot Clay 

Prepared Flux Clay 

Bench Clay—Wet or Dry 

Special Eye Facing Clay 

Mending Clay—Prepared or unprepared 

Stopper Clay 

Missouri Washed Clay 

Missouri Washed Clay Burned 

Missouri Picked Pot Clay Raw and 
Burnt 

Missouri Raw Furnace Clay 

Bottom Grade Clay 

Refractory Grade Clay 

Jack Brick Grade Clay 


These materials are not only mined from 
superior deposits, but are prepared by experts 
with the co-operation of our glass house 
engineers. 


U0 EOE eee eee 
ZITITITIMUM I eC CEA LODO 


~ 


7 ~ \> 
Q \ 8 
ALUALULUERDEE ER ELDER EEO C) VUVUDLOUUETUVDTAD TPAD DD ADOO EDEL ADVE EADUEETELES 


Page eighty-one 


Page eighty- two 


Se, 


PLATE 26—Tank Blocks Set—Ready for Burning. 


nt a cnr a 


 - ee 
TITITITIPLIEITIEEDSTUDTEEPU LUO COL ICULOLLLCUULELLELLELLOLLLULLULL LLU LUL LULL Lab POUL LEU Leo 


PLATE 27—“The End of a Perfect Day’’—Vandalia Mine. 


_ So TT reTTTeTerrereerrieryrirrrircrireriy Try Thy | 
SAVOAAAAUOUUERAVADOCAVOQUUNSUOCUCUCOUDORRDVGUCAUTEEL POUT ADV ODEDEGAOD OU ETDEUUUDUUUUTETCEE EDTA TEED 


Page eighty-three 


WOO) 
7, 
“py: 


QQVAMUUULUCTMEA TUN CERON EULA (MAL Ale 


Wy 


= Inside No. 2 No. | ; = 
= Diameter Wedge Wedge ead Boe = 
= 2 ft. 3 in. 57) ae ee 57 = 
= ass se: 49 ee eta 60 = 
= Bree 38 30: 1 68 = 
= : 
= SNe aise Ihre ome Wo 91 15 106 = 
= 6220 ach er ee ae 91 23 114 = 
= etre ary |r se mas ye 91 30 121 = 
= TA, Cae eeetearen ae 91 38 129 = 
ms 7c EEG all Ses eee 91 45 136 = 
= BS75.0, tee ie ieee eee 91 53 144 = 
= Sane aes | eee 91 60 151 = 
= Wah nay era es 91 68 159 E 
=| 9A Will see 91 76 167 E 
= 10 25s Oka Hees see 91 83 174 = 
= Va Ta I 91 91 182 = 
= LAO ap eee teres 91 98 189 = 
= 1 1RG Bel Sen eee 91 106 197 = 
= 1 DENSE D Gol teense 91 113 204 = 
= Oi sa tne ee = 
= Ogee oan = 
i= OT ok eile: <a 
E  O geP bait eres = 
a Pee Maat terre = 
ES, = OF 
GIMME ELEM PND ONY OP ONCOL 


Page eighty-four 


< 
A. 


QUT 
S 


WU 


ANS oy 

= TABLESOF WEDGE BRICK 

= Continued 

= | | 

= Inside No. 2 No. | : 

= Diameter Wedge Wedge Straight Total 
z | 

= PeteOMine soc. ..6: 91 158 249 
= oR 91 166 257 
= oe 91 173 264 
= le ae 91 181 272 
= a 91 188 279 
= WaeeO Rots...) 91 196 287 
= 1 | 91 203 294 
= I So ae 91 211 302 
= TS St oe 91 218 309 
= ONS ee 91 226 317 
= 2, AG 91 233 324 
= PO MMEGEM CM ns... 91 241 332 
= AS 91 248 339 
= Dy Ok ae 91 256 347 
= PROG ie... 91 263 354 
= 2° ti 91 271 362 
o 18) Se 91 278 369 
= DMC Wed! 91 286 377 
= A a) | 91 293 384 
= AMM ke. oo. 54 91 301 392 
= PaO el as, a. 91 308 399 
ee Gee ls 22... 9I 316 407 
= Wy 91 323 414 
= Ue | ae 91 331 422 
= in 91 338 429 
= eT es 91 346 437 
y 


~ < 
CATON INNO OPENED C) (NDT TTTDD TODO NAADNDODLANATLTNUTHVTTIUNN 


S 
DTU eee UVTOQUNONDNOUUOHUUAEATOOOUNOUONUOO UNO QUUHEDEUUTOTOQODDSN ED TOTUU UTA CTUA TOU TUOTUOUHTVETIOTTTTIULYS 


Page eighty-five 


UU 


\< ULE 


WS Gz 
= TABLE FOR ARCH BRICK = 
= Inside Na. 351 =Nos 291 Nos! é = 
= Diameter Arch | Arch | Arch Rebar uty ele = 
3 0 ft. 6 in. 1901 er 19 = 
= eins 12 15:2| 27 = 
= eg, Os 4 30° |... 13 eee 34 = 
= ce ie |e 38 |. 38 = 
= 2 2s Ole cate 34 8) ae 42 = 
= 2: SEGRE sane 26°} 523. 49. = 
= Bh) aM eo 19 38 eee 57 cs 
= SPR. whet koe hts 1 53° eee 64 = 
= LOR a er a 4 | 963 gees 72 = 
= Avg: 34 valle sas Net aagatD 76. hn ee 76 = 
= 4firGiia || a eee 76 4 || 80 = 
= Fore ed Ce a ance aan 76 1 87 = 
= Catal Scat | cat ca bey rc 76 19 95 = 
= 62540. 8 eel sean 76 27 103 = 
= 63264 Ces ae ae 76 | 34 || 110 = 
= rin een Cheah Rate 76) 42 a eee = 
= Te Ge) Ik ae omen 76 | 49 || 125 = 
= Bag! 0 Sai ie) cae nae 76 57 133 = 
= PVA Maral Lec 5. 5 76 | 64 |] 140 = 
= QAO.) | Mien mi ceae ee 76 72 || 148 = 
= 9550 6 Ua) lls coe se ee 76.1? foes = 
= 10? 0.4? ce Meee oe 76 | 87 || 163 = 
= LOS 26 (thi eae eee 76 94 170 = 
Ss (1 Oats Vie kee erm 76 | 102 178 | = 
= A pea Soret [tees ae 76 | 109 || 185 = 
= 1256300 ee eee 76. | 11721 os = 
7), S 


Page eighty-six 


yy 
@UULEEPOUEELELLLEE LE LDeGLLLEELLE| 


) TODNIONIN NPNPIDHNNONDOOLL 


S 
SS 
i 


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CMM I) ) TTT TTT MHTTTTHTTTTAN 


JR AYE ON 

AQUANUAUUVANIYULCUTATEAUEEE EU EEATT | 1e \ PTTTTTTNNeTTTNTETNTTTTTTTTTTTTTE 
ay ett We 
= SY 
= iol, OF 92INCGH KEY BRICK 
= Inside No. 4 | No. 3 | No. 2 | No. | 
~ ; Total 
= Diameter Key Key Key Key 
= “Gala dl EMG aie be ae ee 25 
= een). 16 [eet Te ie ee 29 
= Pe Ges 9 A ban a eee 34 
= 2G) Ot SY Clb adhere eette a 38 
= Oe 29 hea eee 42 
= (4 21 ial eee 46 
= A ee 12 BO eat ah eee 50 
= 5 es 5 ieee Meda 55 
= SOS an yD Lohan 57 
= ds OS a ae eee 55 4 59 
= ay Sy gel ane 50 13 63 
= OO) ae an 46 21 67 
= PO SSO ae ra 42 295 Tas 37 | 
= AG | a nee 38 38 76 
= oy Si) a 34 46 80 
= 5) 1G OF | eee 29 55 84 
= 22 Ad 25 63 88 
= 5) t's eae ari 21 71 92 
S [() Se e Pee 17 80 97 
= ih 13. | 88 || 101 
= i © iy Oo er 9 96 || 105 
= 1, (8 ed 4 | 105 109 
= WMO tk. tS ola 113 113 
5 


GITTTTTITTTTTTITITUTATTTAETT LCC MMM ROMP ODPCMOROPMC CPP OCUMOORCOOAELLLLE LULL 


“Ly 
Z 


Page eighty-seven 


ZLAY BS 
kent RD) 

“ yes x > 
A ee) || Aie V 
Q J PEBRANDSIT =) V7, 

Zs fs 


yy aN Wal! i) a: 
= TABLE OF 9-INCH KEY BRICK = 
= Continued = 
: Inside Diameter | ey, Straight} Total = 
= Patios Oh ake soewine's 113 Aaetta = 
= ein Face Maw ee tvene 113 9 | 122 = 
= (SE Oh oe a ee 113 | 13 | 126 = 
= 14% 00 113 17, F130 = 
= [4 EPO ea a eae, 113 21 | 134 = 
= 15552 OF SOG ieee eee 113 25 138 = 
= Lt Gia, secre me ee 113 30 | 143 = 
= [GEOR te. ice eae 113 | p34 ees = 
= LO 005 a atin oe eee 113 [938 iets = 
= [7c 20M Mest Ss eae 113: AoE ee les = 
= (7eeY Gi bette 113°, | 4oeeaees = 
= 18a 0 ties scp ealeeee 113 | 50 | 163 = 
= 1 Bx 260 Ge. Neen 113 55 | 168 = 
= 19 75 OS ey ck a cer eoeine te 113 59 he = 
= 19.225 Gist ga tt eas See ea 113 63 | 176 = 
= 20S 0 aie ee ae 13 |» 67 |. 180 = 
= 20316 ek A eee 1133) 7 sae es = 
= 215050 2° se ah alneteaee 113 |) 7 en eetae = 
= 2U 6 bs oa: iene 113 80 | 193 = 
= 2228" Oi aie OMe ag ae 113 | 84 | 197 = 
= 2225. OANA oe eee 113 88 | 201 = 
= 2358 080s eer tan (13. eet 2 ee eee = 
= 233576 eee ee 113 97° | 2210 = 
WM OF 


CMT (Sy y 
VPN @ PDTC 


Page eighty-eight 


SUT Eas | el ANN TUTTTT TTT TET CC 
S 2 mids On 


ww iz 
= TABLE OF 9-INCH KEY BRICK = 
= Continued = 
= Inside Diameter ee | Key| Straight = 
= Oi 113 101 = 
= “G 113 105 = 
= OH ae: 109 = 
= oe 113 113 = 
= Oe 113 117 = 
= ao 113 122 = 
= 0 113 126 = 
= Sat 113 130 = 
= One 113 134 = 
= on 113 138 = 
= dO 113 143 = 
= ay 113 147 = 
= aig 113 151 = 
= pet 113 155 = 
= Ae 113 159 = 
= Gr 113 163 = 
= 0 113 168 = 
= Sa 113 172 = 
= 0° 113 176 = 
= 6." 113 180 = 
a Oe 113 184 = 
= 113 189 = 
113 193 = 
lp wy 


CITT TD C) VUDDDLURUGUEVDEEDEERODADDDEAEDUTEE EDT 
\ 


Page eighty-nine 


RUT f= _! INC 
~ \—4\ oar ©) tA 
Wy AL sIYS/ Ms 


TABLE FOR STANDARD CIRCLE BRICK 


24-in. | 36-in. 
Circle | Circle 


Inside 


Diameter 


l 
48-in. | 60-in. | 72-in. 
Total 
Circle | Circle | Circle ee 


= 
ct 


— 
- 5 
bo 


” a . 
« - - 


Wo 
i) 


a 
a“ 


lon 


a 
— 
— 


Donnan bp BB BWW WW WN NH LK KH 
CeO BONGO le SO, OV SCO EON Ol COON re) 


Circle brick are also furnished for 96, 108 and 120 inside diameters. 


All diameters are furnished 214” thick by 414” or 6” wide, and 9” 
back. 


Splits | yr thick furnished in above sizes. 


AUFEUAACUUUCUGACCTUUITUNEATUUAUOEU UCU UU CULO TAU EUOTECUU EEUU UUUCTARA TOUT UU UT CNET TRAEEU CCU UY YES 


RITTER COOPER 


S 
A 


: S 
4, —______ | \) 
iMTTTTTAATTTANTETTTTLT( OTT TS 


Page ninety 


LA 


v 
UL ee 


ANS WU) 


feoiuleatORTeIRCUE BRICK 


For Length of Chord Multiply Sine by Diameter 


eae 
Sine of roman No. to 
HalfAngle ae q Circle 
.58779 tors ile 28 
.50000 18.000” 29 
43386 | 20.740" 30 
.38268 | 23.518” 31 
.34202 | 26.314” 32 
.30902 | 29.124” 33 
P2017 oee 511.945" 34 
BGG Le gi 54/73. 35 
b23932. | 37.606" 36 
22251 40.447” oT. 
.20791 43 287” 38 
.19509 | 46.132” 39 
.18428 | 48.833” 40 
.17365 517.828" 4] 
16459 | 54.681” 42 
mi D043: ).57 2933" 43 
.14904 | 60.386” 44 
.14230 | 63.246” 45 
.13617 | 66.094” 46 
.13053 | 68.949” 47 
.12534 | 71.805” 48 
.12054 | 74.664” 49 
erOU9Ps| 77.920" 50 


Sine of 


HalfAngle 


.11196 
10811 
10453 
. 10044 
.09802 
.09507 
509225 
.08965 
.08716 
.08481 
.08258 
.08046 
.07846 
.07655 
.07472 
.07300 
.07136 
.06976 
.06825 
.06679 
.06540 
.06407 
.06279 


Diameter 


fo 


80. 


83 


89 
91 
94 
97 


103 


108 
111 


7 
120 
123 


DAE. 
129. 
1310 
134. 
.614" 
471" 
334" 


hoy 
140 
143 


r Q’ 
Chord 


385" 


248" 
86. 


099” 


605” 
OLB 
.667" 
560 

100. 


390 


VRIES 
106. 


La 4 


lel 
.856” 
114. 
570” 
.449” 
wane 


708” 


102” 
014” 
868” 
750” 


SFU UTE O) CCE 


yy 


* 
\ \) 
UEC (TTT 


Page ninety-one 


CTEM EEE NMED ODODE 


SY 


= 


JE SAY BS 

ST TT S Po 
Ww ALJ S 
= TABLE OF 13144-INCH KEY BRICK 
= Inside No. 2 No. 
= Diameter Key Key Stel aete 
= 6 ft. 0 in. 52.) No 52 
= Gaost 48 71 55 
= TO ras 42 1679) eee 58 
= 7 EEO ay 24°- |. a 61 
= SSor0nG 33 32°01 65 
zs Sito n 28 400° ae 68 
= OR we 23 48” | 71 
= Geos 18 56:7 | 74 
= [One 40 2 12 6.) 77 
= LONG 7 73. ae 80 
= Theva 2 81. A 83 
= Rarawes baetate rer Ce oe 85: 1.05 85 
= Lact Gh Sal ie Pee 85 2 87 
= 27h g rn aie an 85 5 90 
= VI te a pe one 85 8 93 
= 13200: titel e genes 85 1 96 
= La cava ne ee 85 14 99 
= [4c O + Sen eee 85 17 102 
= P46 Sell tae 85 21 106 
= Bice ee ee bean 85 24 109 
= 15a Ge gl ae 85 27 112 
= 16 re 0 Coal eee ey 85 30 115 
= 169576 8 |S reer 85 33 118 
z 


S 


CANNOT 


Page ninety-two 


C) TODO ATED 


a 
% 


Ys 
x 


GUTTMAN TPE UNM LO 


wy 


AUT 
S 


WU 


TABLE OF 13144-INCH KEY BRICK 


Continued 


Inside Diameter 


No. | Key} Straight 


Total 


UU EEE 


~y 


YA 


FUUTTTUD ETD D EDR DDE ===: 


Page ninety-three 


y 
S 


» 
PTET HOCOUONANOUTOUUAUEATQOOUUTUUOOUOOUQOTEQOUOOUCQVUOUATEOOSUULEUIUUD FATE ATETUETTOTUT TT UTUUUTTITTTITUYS 


A 


“> 


| fe C LAY 
PRTTMTITUTC TOTEM COO MOCO ey |, 1 oy MMA 
<A EN a | YE > 
~ eS 22 
= TABLE OF 13344-INCH KEY BREE = 
= Continued = 
= Inside Diameter No. | Key} Straight Total = 
= 25°tts 6 in ee a ee 85 109 194 = 
= 29 SOs ame aa een 85 112 197 = 
= 2955 GUS Aes mmedeD 85 115 200 = 
= 30" 0) ee asa nt 85 118 203 = 
= BO: SSO i ae ee aed 85 121 206 = 
= 3 [eS O wes tet eee nties 85 124 209 = 
= Mp 3 8o ter ts 85 127 212 = 
= Sein Qe 85 131 216 = 
= GPa gee fen er es 85 134 219 = 
= 35 OP ene ee 85 137 222 = 
= $3.65 te oe 85 140 225 = 
= 34054 eu oe one one 85 143 228 = 
= 34.08 Osea ta aree 85 146 231 = 
= 35. 0 eae see 85 149 234 = 
= oS eee = 
= TABLE OF 9x 6x 3-INCH KEY BRICK = 
= Inside No. 2 Key|No. | Key = 
= Diameter || 9x(6-442) |9x(6-53¢) | Straight Total = 
= x3? <5 = 
= 6 ft. 01 47 i 47 2 
= ee 44 6:0 | 50 = 
= 7ESE0 42 12 2a 54 = 
= 7 sO 38 19. | 57 = 
= Soanles 34 26° 60 = 
= Boas 31 32 1 63 = 
= Oo ea0.ay 27 39), |. re 66 = 
= Cerdihes 23 46 15. ee 69 = 
= [Ose Oe 20 $2) 72 = 
= fi aa 16 59. | 75 oe 
7% OE. 


if = 
? : 
AVUVAUTVNNL DUE DULD DARED DERG LUTE DDAN 


Page ninety-four 


) UTA ATATTTATTTTTTTTANY 


CTT eee; : 


Ss 


ES ere 


oO Peex.Orxe- NGI KEY eB RIGK 


Continued 


LABLE 
Inside 

Diameter 
Heft. 0 in. 
Pigeon 6 &- 
ie. (Oa 
[| Pz ee 6 ce 
ioe OF 
lee) ad pee 
4 S-O* 
[4a0°7: 
[ae Oa 
iSaee0% 
(Ome. O8- 
16m 62" 
wan Oe 
it 6 
togeea0 a. 
LAS 6 
Loe Os. 
Pet wa 
D0 ean: 
AUC ET op 

Dive Ot. 
Zi Gt 
IR as ae 
Pat O37 | 
7268 V7 Oats 
Oo gan O 
Aa aee (yaw: 
atest O.32 
245 owed (ie 
Dee OT 
262 405. 
208} 6°: 
Jaf oa Wigs 
Pie. O.5 
Cope 
PR t e O9,- 
29 Ot 
Do eae oO) 
poe Ol- 


No. 2 Key|No. | Key}. 
9x (6-443) |9x(6-53¢) | Straight 
pre Be xo 


OG Tae ie traticc er 
| Zagat etre UC 
LOSE cee 
Oe eco oe 
eA pile oe are 
91 5) 
91 6 
91 10 
9] 13 
91 16 
91 19 
91 22 
91 Mey, 
91 28 
91 a2 
91 33 
91 38 
91 4] 
91 44 
91 47 
91 50 
91 54 
91 57 
al 60 
91 63 
91 66 
91 69 
91 iy? 
91 76 
91 19 
9] 82 
91 85 
91 88 
91 91 
91 94 
91 98 
91 101 
eh 104 
91 107 


Total 


YANN TTA O 


Page ninety-five 


\a TOT AS 


ZG 
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CIT RE a TTY” 


2 


TTT TTT THTOTTTTANY 


SY ay 
Ua i al ia) 
wy re Js) 2 
= TABLE OF GAS FLUE ARCHEBRIGiKs = 
= FOR BLAST FURNACE, DOWNCOMER = 
= Shapes Required = 
= Inside Diameter = 
rm Openings = 
= No. 3 | No.4 | No.5 | Straight = 
= 2 freon. 46 = 
= See Pas Deore 34 15 = 
= hepa se ae ees a 16 38 = 
= Be Os Geahn cree as| yarn cee ae, = 
= Ne RR ek ate He NEN ae 26 39 ae 
= By Oe eek eek ae) ae. ee 70 ae 
= iad sR ere ed eae as, ee 70 6 = 
“ Ge SOE eee, Ae ae a fee Or ee 70 I] = 
= G5 OT aii. se Sah De eee 70 16 = 
= y anaols Vee Ronco tate ae Be ee he 70 ee = 
= | Bide eatea re ee ee Wate ce |. 70 27 = 
= a feetam (aihars wnbree.s Weir ey Meat els CHIMP bce SY 28 70 32 = 
= BT G5 “ess eae Sr eee ae eee 70 38 = 
= QO OE. gas mie ad ike ee ee 70 43 = 
= CUPOLA BLOCKS — 
= Shapes Required = 
= Inside Diameter = 
= Cupola Lining = 
= 30-Inch | 36-Inch | 48-Inch | 60-Inch = 
= 2 feo 6 ineeeeeee 15 = 
= Contd Uta eae ae 8 8 = 
= 3270 tis A ee ame en cae ee 17 oe 
= ic eaibncs Brides nye An a Ah 12 6 = 
= SR OS Sag Ween «| eererente 8 I] = 
= i amas: Bates Sr mm hy eo 4 16 Ss 
2 ASS OS 21 = 
= y Miata Ean Pits. ligt 15 7 = 
= A 6 Se RS) ohelee lame, ae 10 13 = 
= t Milite: SUPE ON aon ee okt tic 5 19 = 
= Be peal, ee a ee 25 a3 
> se 


CATIA TTHTATUHTED HAMID HATE TTT OC TUTTI 


Page ninety-six 


LLANE 


“ip 


x Its @ MOO 

pNU | “yy 
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snipey 


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15 |262|60 


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13 |30 |56 


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122129° 147 
15 |36 


6 


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10 


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7 |393|45 


10 51 


yory | “ON 
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ory Yasue] 

snipey: 


6 [21313 
116 | 2 130 [39 


AOE, 
17 


4144-INCH THICK ARCH 


Ba Pei0sie9 


arenbs 


yory | “ON 
yorV Z ON 


etl 


NUMBER OF FIRE BRICK REQUIRED FOR ONE COURSE OF 


RTM LLLP CUCUCCCCCU ODOC CUCU UEC UCPC UCULUU CCC UAL 
TERE EEE Ee TN TOVVOTOvvnUVudUTOVUN Uy Onan HOOT UUOTOOUATTTT NO ANT AT UTA TT TTTOTTTTTTTTTTNTTANY 


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CAIMMIN NT T Cu TNVT/N 0 TTAVDTONIAD PAN DNINNANNNTIIDTTTAINANY 


—— Page ninety-seven 


RVTTUTOTTUTECETTER ECE ET 
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€Z | 9EL 671 /ELZI 9-01 


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1€1 e21 1407/01 


SZl SLL ELL 7291 9°16 


BLL ZLLULZL 20S1 «0716 


ell 901 eGel 19718 


801 101 107.8 


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£01) 4 96 a9 


uc#s¢ 

46 68 w0-d = 

Z6 +8 «979 

82 407.9 
= el 1978 = 
= = 
= u07G = 
— = 
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= a 
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= 3 a 3 s ? P13 2 = 
= 2 —|2 2 e as |e es = 
= = =| = eS < =|¢ = = 
= = 2)2 = 2 2 2|> 2 = 
= = Sh ey = =a =] a|}> i=] = 
me ° Blo ° o © ola Ta) — 
= = 
= == 
= = 
= = 
= = 
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COTTTTITITINITITTT TERRA TPIT TT UELIDT TT TULILTCLCQAED LIT AIILUNERTLIDI IED EDITETOVIDP IIT IDED ODT IIIVILOTTOPCETIIDI LT UPIVID UE DPIOI LUPO LUEEELLUEL ELLE Lees 


Page ninety-eight 


i; 


ROU 
S | 


\ ) TT 


CG 


General Information About 


Fire Brick 


All Fire Brick should be kept in a dry place. 


Moisture, especially in cold weather, will 
greatly injure any brick. 


To obtain the best results from brickwork, 
observe the following precautions: 


Use good fire clay equal in refractoriness to 
the brick itself, mixing with water to thin paste. 
Dip brick and rub to make a brick to brick joint. 


Warm slowly to expel moisture. 


From 400 to 600 pounds of fire clay are 
enough to lay one thousand brick. Fine 
ground fire clay should be used for laying up 
fire-clay brick. 


For estimating on fire brick work, use the 
following figures: | 


1 square foot 414-inch wall requires 7 brick. 
1 square foot 9-inch wall requires 14 brick. 
| square foot 13-inch wall requires 21 brick. 


| cubic foot brick-work requires 17 nine-inch 
straight brick. 


| cubic foot fire clay brick-work weighs 150 pounds. 
1,000 brick (closely stacked) occupy 56 cubic feet. 
1,000 brick (loosely stacked) occupy 72 cubic feet. 


When keys, wedges or other shapes are used in any 
considerable quantity, add 10% to the estimated 
number of squares for the total. 


Red Brick work is estimated on basis of 21 brick per 
cubic foot. 


For lime mortar figure on 9 cubic feet of clean, sharp 
sand—3 bushels lime per thousand brick. 


UO CE 


ATTIC LEE ELLER CUCU PU UULULLL CALUCLATE O CRU UUL UL LUL CLO O ULLAL Le 


We 
vy 
THOTT ETS 


Page ninety-nine 


4 
GIMME 


O 


This test, and the next two following (Pages 105 and 107), 
reprinted by courtesy of American Soctety for Testing Mate- 
rials, Philadelphia, Pa., U. S. A., affiliated with the Inter- 
national Association for Testing Materials. 


STANDARD TEST 
For 


REFRACTORY MATERIALS UNDER LOAD AT 
HIGH TEMPERATURES 


Serial Designation: C-16-20 


_ This test is issued under the fixed designation C 16; the final number indicates the year 
of original adoption as standard, or in the case of revision, the year of last revision. 


Proposep As TENTATIVE, 1917; ADopTED In AMENDED Form, 1920. 


Object 


1. The object of this test is to determine the resistance of the specimen 
to deformation at a specified temperature for a specified time, when subjected 
to a compressive load of 25 lb. per sq. in. (1.765 kg. per sq. cm.). 


Apparatus 


2. The apparatus consists essentially of a furnace and loading device. 
It shall be constructed in accordance with Figs. 1 and 2. 


(a) The furnace shall be cylindrical in form, 18 in. (457 mm.) in 
internal diameter, as shown in Fig. 1 (Plate II). 


(6) The heating shall be done with gaseous or oil fuel and compressed 
air, using not less than two burners located tangentially and so 
arranged that no flame can impinge upon the test specimen. The 
burners shall be such as will insure a uniform temperature in all 
parts of the furnace and be under complete control. 


(c) The method of loading shown in Fig. 1 shall be used, and the 
details shall be such as will insure accuracy in the applied load and 
freedom from eccentric loading, both in the original application 
and during the testing. It is advantageous to make the cross- 
beams as light as possible, so that the greater portion of the load 
may be concentrated in the weights. 


Page one hundred 


Tasie I1.—TEMPERATURE TO BE ATTAINED AT TIME SPECIFIED. 
ALL TEMPERATURES IN DEGREES CENTIGRADE. 


PIRE «CLAY 
TIME SILETCA 

Heavy Moderate 

Duty Duty 
ho Be gee eee eee 40 160 160 
Sat Se alt ah Be ere i ee 80 280 280 
soos: 3 Gd gS an 140 400 400 
Re ri as ea Ve 200 500 500 
8 hoseo BOTS SA ee 260 620 oes) 
cy hin 16 Dee © ae 290 720 Gg 
RNa Me eatery lke ieee sw 300 815 770 
sik Sohge CE ee 310 900 850 
. 30 Bot 320 980 920 
Lc Sec a. ghall aRe C ane cee ee 385 1045 990 
Sen aS iE eee ee 490 1100 1050 
«6 i8 WSs ee 590 1150 1100 
3 tis A ee eee 695 1195 1145 
ts co aL 800 1235 1185 
5 o na eee 900 1270 1220 
wowa ab baie ae 1000 1300 1250 
pS hes (ko See 1100 1330 1275 
5 re a ae ee 1200 1350 1300 
Sco pS ole ae 1250 1350 1300 
| Motelaskt hate yates ae 1300- 1350 1300 
nic: fee nie | eee a ar 1350 1350 1300 
so Se oto © ol eae 1380 1350 1300 
52k Ree 1410 1350 1300 
= 555 och de) Gilani 1440 1350End 1300 End 
yooh eck ck 1470 
aes tWe  eeE ee 1500 
Scene ARS 8 on eee 1500 
A OLe cE ee) AL eee 1500 
Ah Sey SLaree nae Biplane 1500 
EE Re ees See e.g 1500 
A oldahc Lee Ae tnG Ae eae 1500 

1500 End 


Light 
Duty 2 


160 
280 
400 


500 
570 
640 
700 


HS 
810 
860 
905 


950 
985 
1020 
1050 


1075 
1090 
1100 
1100 


1100 
1100 
1100 
1100 


1100 End 


(d)The temperature may be measured either with a calibrated plati 
num-rhodium thermo-couple, encased in a double protecting tube 
with the junction not more than | in. (25 mm.) from the side or 
edge of the specimen and approximately opposite the center; or 
with some form of optical pyrometer that has been calibrated 
against a thermo-couple in the furnace. 
used, the cold-end temperature should be kept constant in 
melted ice. A recording form of indicator is recommended where 


possible. 


If the thermo-couple 1s 


Page one hundred one 


| 
| 
| 
a rary een 


Make ihn 

Iwo Parts 
Symmetrically 
about CL. 


B 


Fic. 2.—Special Shapes Required for Furnace. 
—By courtesy of Metallurgical and Chemical Engineering. 


Test Specimen 


3. The test specimen shall consist, whenever possible, of a standard 9-in. 
brick placed vertically on end. In the case of blocks or shapes, sections 
approximately 9 by 44 by 214 in. (228 by 114 by 64 mm.) shall be cut, utilizing 
as far as possible existing plane surfaces. The ends of the specimen shall be 
either ground so that they are parallel and perpendicular to the vertical axis, 
or if this is impossible, shall be bedded in a neutral cement, so that the 
specimen is perpendicular to the base of the furnace. 


Page one hundred two 


PLATE II. 
A.S.T.M. STANDARDS ADOPTED IN 1920. 


STANDARD TEST FOR REFRACTORY MATERIALS. 


hi era ang 4 
a i * ain : 
== ee : & = Pe 7 Ir oP 
FURNACE COVER IN 2 PARTS 
6/9, 
A 
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SK /OK 3” sina (et Pee O.E . _¥ Hard wheelsx 
‘Hates \~ pan-Plates 1s | Sep | : 
Tike \ SS ESy Pi 
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‘ey | | ELA 33 SF : 
Ver Be eae BSN ES aap oed (i Ponies 
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’ 7 4 


75 


i—\—- 


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, Counterweight to 
x * Balance Lever 


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i 7 ES 
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Ys ‘1s £§ 
rs OS 
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eset Fo [o VY////) | Tod ‘1 
* HU. llldshA Y Yj Vip Vi: 
END VIEW OF COLUMN be hf ae =~ 204% - ale 20g le. mee —Iikt->| | 
fe-- ------------------- --- - 54 53% ----- ie Rey co A 


SECTION B-B 


SECTION A-& 


Fic. 1—Apparatus for Testing Refractory Materials under Load at High Temperatures. 
(By courtesy of Metallurgical and Chemical Engineering.) 


33-2 


Oe eee OR ee ee he 8 


y 
wets fo vederen Sani 


1 TINS Hern Lipee canon 4 te Ste i 
SR. RS, Pegs 


Pe" 


SEBO APN MAES REI EE a reatetlanmenaaniadiness panies inlets 


RPDS hit 1 ove: 
Pah t ney ithe aes os 


lage “oT 


a) 
as 


1600 


1400 


1200 


+ 1000 

c 

o 

oO y (J 

fo) i 

as) 800 f 4) e/a 

4 eS / A ls 
2 ofa ¢ 

i rg RST a a ee 

3S Re lige a 
a. 60 

e 0 

@o 
kK 


Silica ------------ =- 
Heavy Duty 
FireClay i Duty —--— 
Light Duty ----— 


400 


NOS 
FERRERS 


caeaee hours. 


Fic. 3.—Time-Temperature Curve for Load Test. 


The test specimen shall be measured before testing, making not less than 
five observations in each direction to within +0.02 in. (0.5 mm.). The 
average dimensions shall be reported, and the cross-section calculated. 


Page one hundred three 


Starting the Test 


4. The test specimen shall occupy approximately the center ot the 
furnace and should rest on a block of some highly refractory material, having 
a minimum expansion or contraction. A silicon-carbide brick has been found 
satisfactory. At the top of the test specimen a block of similar highly re- 
fractory material should be placed, extending through the furnace top to 
receive | the® load. 


Notre—Gross errors which may more than double the contraction will result if the speci- 
men is not set perpendicular to the base of the support or if the load is eccentrically applied. 


Heating 


5. The rate of heating shall be in accordance with the requirements of 
Table I and the time-temperature curves of Fig. 3, which give the rate and 
time of heating suggested for different grades of material. 


Loading 


6. (a) The load is calculated from the average cross-section as deter- 
mined on the untested specimen and the requirement of the test. It is recom- 
mended that for general purposes, 25 lb. per sq. in. (1.765 kg. per sq. cm.) 
be used. 


(4) The additional masses required to give the desired loading should 
be equally distributed on each side of the beam. 


Completing the Test 


7. (a) At the expiration of the time of heating, the supply of heat shall 
be stopped and the furnace allowed to cool, during not less than 5 hours before 
removing the load and examining the test specimen. 


d Nore—The specimen shall be examined immediately after the heating is stopped for 
evidences of cracking and spalling, as such defects may develop later due to the rapid cooling 
of the furnace. 


(6) After the test specimen has cooled to the room temperature, it 
shall be remeasured as before described, and the change in length recorded 
and reported as percentage of the original length. 


Nore.—It is recommended that a photograph be made of the specimen before and 
after testing, as yielding valuable information at a minimum time and expense. 


Page one hundred four 


STANDARD TEST 
For 


POROSITY AND PERMANENT VOLUME CHANGES 
IN REFRACTORY MATERIALS 


Serial Designation: C 20-20 


This test is issued under the fixed designation C 20; the final number indicates the 
year of original adoption as standard, or in the case of revision, the year of last revision. 


Proposep As TentaTive, 1918; Apvoptep, 1920. 


Object 


1. The object of this test is to determine the porosity and permanent 
volume changes in refractory materials when heated to series of specified 
temperatures. 


Preparation of Test Specimens 


2. (a) The sample shall consist of at least seven standard-size bricks. 

(6) Test specimens measuring 244 by 2% by 14 in. shall be cut so as to 
remove the original surfaces of the bricks; for this a “cut-off” grinding wheel 
is recommended. There should be five test specimens for each of the seven 
heat treatments specified in Section 4 or 35 test specimens for each kind of 
brick. The test specimens shall be brushed or washed free from all adhering 
dust and marked serially with a refractory stain, for which 5 per cent cobalt- 
kaolin mixture is suggested. 


Procedure 


3.. After the test specimens have been cut and cleaned, they shall be 
dried and the volumes and porosity of each obtained as described in Sections 
5 and 6. They shall be heated as specified in Section 4, and the changes in 
volume and porosity determined. 


Burning 


4, (a) Dry the test pieces prior to placing in the kiln. 

(6) Raise the temperature as rapidly as is consistent with even heat 
distribution to 1200° C. From 1200° C. raise the temperature at the rate of 
30° per hour, drawing samples at each 50° interval from 1200 to 1500° C. 

(c) If it is possible and the number of brands being tested warrant, it is 
best that separate burns to each temperature be made and the kiln sealed and 
allowed to cool by radiation. In case separate burns cannot be made, the 
five test specimens from each temperature increment should be covered with 
hot sand immediately on being drawn; or placed in a supplementary furnace 
and kept at about 500° C. until all drawings are completed, and then cooled 
with the furnace sealed to cool wholly by radiation. 


Method of Obtaining Data 


5. (a) The test specimens shall be cleaned from adhering or loosely 
attached pieces and particles, care being taken not to alter the exterior volume 
as originally prepared for this test. 

(6) The test specimens shall be heated if necessary to 110° C. to remove 
moisture, and their dry weight (D) obtained to 0.10 g. 

(c) The test specimens shall be placed in kerosene of known density (8) 
under a vacuum of 24 in. for 4 hours at 25° C. and cooled to room temperature 
while yet immersed. 


Page one hundred five 


(d) When cool, each test specimen shall be weighed suspended in kerosene 
at 25° C. to determine its Suspended Weight (8S), in grams. 


(e) The Saturated Weight (W), in grams, of each test specimen shall be 
obtained immediately after obtaining the suspended weight, by drying lightly 
with a kerosene-moistened towel to remove the excess kerosene and then 
weighing in air. 

(f) The Exterior Volume (V), in cubic centimeters, of each test specimen 
is obtained by subtracting the suspended weight (5) from the saturated weight 
(W), and dividing by the density (&) of the kerosene. Thus, 


WV — 5 


(g) The Actual Volume of ee Pores (Vi), in cubic centimeters, is 
obtained by subtracting the dry weight (D) from ‘the saturated weight (W), 
and dividing by the density (&) of the kerosene. Thus: 


(h) The Apparent Specific Gravity (T,) of that portion of the test speci- 
men which is impervious to liquid is obtained by dividing the dry weight by 
the difference between the dry and suspended weights, and multiplying by 
the density of the kerosene. Thus: 


(1) The True Specific Gravity (T) of the wholly solid or burned clay por- 
tion is obtained by crushing a portion of the dried test specimen to 120-mesh 
powder and determining the displacement at 25° C. under 24 in. vacuum, of 
a 20-g. sample in a 50-cc. straight-wall pyknometer using kerosene, and 
correcting for density of the kerosene. 


(7) The Volume of Sealed Pores (V2), in cubic centimeters, is obtained by 
subtracting the quotient of dry weight (D) divided by true specific gravity 
(T) from the volume of the impervious portion of the test specimen; or 


(D5) rb) 
.) ai 


(k) The Volume Shrinkage is obtained by subtracting the volumes, that 


is, the values of ————,, before and after the heat treatment. 


Basis of Reference for the Data 


6. To show progressive changes in the several volumes, refer all volumes 
back to the original exterior volume of the test specimen as 100. This is done 
by multiplying all volumes by the factor 100/V, in which V is the exterior 
volume of the test specimen prior to the subjection to heat treatment. 

The volume data should be determined for each test specimen and multi- 
plied by the above factor to reduce all volumes for each test specimen to,terms 
of 100 original exterior volumes of that test specimen before the average of the 
five for each heat treatment is calculated. 


Page one hundred six 


STANDARD TEST 
For 
SOFTENING POINT OF FIRE-CLAY BRICK 


Serial Designation: C 24-20 
This test is issued under the fixed designation C 24; the final number indicates the 
year of original adoption as standard, or in the case of revision, the year of last revision. 


Proposep As TEentTATIVE, 1919; Apvoprep, 1920. 
Object 


1. The object of this test is to determine the softening point of fire-clay 
brick, by comparison of test cones with standard Orton pyrometric cones 
heated in a suitable furnace. 


Preparation of Sample 

2. A 1-kg. (2-lb.) sample shall be taken by chipping off approximately 
equal portions from the corners of the brick. These fragments shall be 
reduced in size by means of rolls or a jaw crusher adjusted to pass a lump 
6 mm. (4 in.) in diameter. They shall be mixed thoroughly, and the amount 
of material reduced to about 250 g. (5 lb.) by quartering. A magnet shall 
be repeatedly passed through the crushed material until all particles of metallic 
iron are removed. This portion shall be ground in a porcelain or agate mortar 
to pass a 60-mesh Standard sieve.!. In order to avoid excessive reduction of 
the fines, they shall be removed frequently during the process of reduction by 
throwing the sample on the sieve and continuing the grinding of the coarser 
particles until all the sample will pass through the sieve. 
Preparation of Test Cones 

3. (a) The sample thus prepared shall be thoroughly mixed and after 
the addition of sufficient dextrine or glue and water, shall be formed into test 


cones in a metal mold in the shape of tetrahedrons, measuring 5 mm (3% in.) 
on the sides at the base and 25 mm. (1 in.) high. 


1Diameter of wire 0.185 mm., opening 0.25 mm. 


Page one hundred seven 


(6) When dry the test cones may be subjected to a preliminary burn at 
a temperature not exceeding 1300° C. (2372° F.) for the purpose of sintering 
them into a firm condition to permit handling, 


Mounting 


4. The test cones shall be mounted on plaques of refractory material of 
such a composition as will not affect the fusibility of the cones.! They shall 
be mounted with the base embedded approximately 1 mm. (0.04 in.) in the 
plaque and the face of one side inclined at an angle of 75 deg. with the hori- 
zontal. The arrangement with respect to the Orton cones shall be substan- 
tially as shown in Fig. 1, that is, alternating with the Orton cones in such a 
way that Orton cones of successive numbers will be placed opposite each other. 
The plaque may be any convenient size and shape and may be biscuited before 
using, if desired. 


Heating 


5. (a) The heating shall be done in-a suitable furnace at a rate not 
greater than 15° C. (27° F.) per minute, nor less *thangl!0 Go 1p eee es 
minute after cone No. 1 is reached, or as nearly within these limits as possible. 


(4) That type of furnace in which a neutral or oxidizing atmosphere may 
be maintained is to be preferred. Excessive reducing conditions should be 
avoided. Care should be taken that the flame does not strike directly against 
the cone or cone plaque. The furnace should be tested at intervals for the 
determination of the uniformity of the distribution of the heat. 


res. 


Softening Point 

6. (a) The softening of the cone will be indicated by the top bending 
over and assuming the position shown in Fig. 2. The bloating, squatting or 
unequal fusion of small constituent particles should always be reported. The 
softening point shall be reported in terms of Orton cones and shall be that cone 
which most nearly corresponds in time of softening with the test cone. If the 
test cone softens later than one Orton cone but earlier than the next Orton 
cone and approximately midway between, the softening point shall be re- 
ported thus: Cone No. 31-32. 

(6) If the test cone starts bending at an early cone but is not down until a 
later cone, the fact should be reported. 


1A mixture of equal parts of a highly refractory clay, such as a good grade of china 
clay, and fused alumina which will pass a 100-mesh sieve, has been found satisfactory. 


Page one hundred eight 


ic 


Gil 
i gua LL ILLION 
FINANCE ay a TULLE EDUC, 
ws : fs] 


The 7-Pound Basis 


In earlier days, the “‘soft-mud’’ method of 
making brick usually produced a _ coarse- 
grained, loose texture. A 9-inch straight (i. e., 
9x416x2% inches) brick averaged 7 pounds 
weight, and by custom this became a standard. 
In figuring the size of tile and other shapes 
larger than a standard brick, to the equivalent 
of 9-inch brick, the weight of the larger piece 
was divided by seven. 


As most 2144x4l%x9 inch brick that are 
made by present day methods weigh more than 
7 pounds, there is no advantage in adhering to 
this obsolete standard. For several years this 
Company has sold tile and special shapes by 
the ton, and the simplicity of this method and 
its convenience has won the hearty approval of 
our customers. 


Rule for Finding the Radius of the 
Arc of Any Circle 


Take one half the base line, square it, and 
to the product add the square of the rise; 
divide the sum by twice the rise; the quotient 
will be the radius of the circle. 


Example—The base line of an arc is 20 
feet; the rise is 5 feet—one half of 20 feet is 
10 feet or 120 inches squared equals 14,400 
inches—plus the square of 5 feet or 60 inches, 
3,600, making 18,000 inches; divided by twice 
ae rise, or 120 inches, equals 150 inches or 
12 feet, 6 inches radius. 


Qt eEEEEOEOE—E—E—E—E—=——_—_—_—O OOOO 


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Page one hundred nine 


A QMUUNUANACAMOON A UUCURUUTTUETUTETTTf 
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A Rule to Find the True Circle for 
Any Given Span and Rise 


Draw line BC through the center and at 
right angles to the span or base line AA, mak- 
ing the distance D to B the height of the rise. 
Draw lines E from B to A, from the center of 
lines E. draw lines at right angles which will 
meet on line BC at C, which is the center of 
the circle. 


A Rule to Find the Inside Diameter of Any 
Circle by the Dimensions of a Brick 


Rule—Double the length of the brick, as 
representing the thickness of the wall, multiply 
that product by the size of the brick at the 
small end, subtract from the size of the brick 
at the large end, the size of the brick at the 
small end, divide the product by the difference, 
and the quotient will be the size of the circle 
in inches. 


This rule can be relied on in calculating 
Cupolas, Arches, Wedges and Keys of any 
length or breadth. 


TTTTITL TRACER TCE RERCCT CUCU CCCLULUEDUPELOLIULRORRAORLROROOURRCAPOOUPCEIRAATLCPOPOLILOROCC IEP IEE RUMI LLL OCCU RAP ee 


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Page one hundred ten 


RTO 
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es 


Example—What is the size circle that a 
key brick will turn, the sizes of which are 9 
inches long, 41% inches wide at large end and 
4 inches wide at small end? 


Solution: 
9 inches, length brick 
2 


4% 18 
4 4 inches, small end brick 


Wier 5| 72.0 


144 inches or 12 feet diameter. 


Colors Corre- = Orton Degree C. 
sponding to ae aaytes 
Temperatures aa Be Earliest visible Red 
(Pouillett, et al) Ol5a 800 Dull Red 

Ol2a 865 
08a 940 Red 
05a 1000 Cherry Red 
Ola 1080 Orange 
4a 1155 
7 1230 Bright Orange, or 
Yellow 
10 1300 
12-13 1370 Steel melts about 
1350: 
15-16 1445 Dazzling White 
19 1315 
26-27 1590 Welding heat about 
1540 C. 


It must be remembered in using the above table that 
the figures are at best but rough approximations, as, when 
working on a large scale, temperature is of less influ- 
ence in causing contraction of clay, than the dura- 
tion of exposure to heat . 


—Searle: Clayworkers’ Handbook 


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Page one hundred eleven 


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Page one hundred twelve 


Weig ht Anthracite Bituminous 
of Coal Per Cu. Ft. Per Cu. Ft. 
Actual weight about..... 93.5 lbs. About 84 lbs. 
Broken (average)........ 52 to 60 lbs. 47 to 56 lbs. 
A Ton occupies..........40 to 43 cu. ft. 43 to 48 cu. ft. 


A ton of Coke occupies 80 to 97 cu. ft. 
Coke swells in coking about 25 to 50%. 


—Latta: American Gas Engineering Practice 


Oil Tar !wo and six-tenths gallons of oil-tar (tar 

from which the water has been evaporated 
by means of steam coils) is equal to | bushel of coke as 
fuel under steam boilers. 6 gallons of tar equals 3 bushels 
of coal properly fired. It requires about 4 per cent of the 
steam generated to operate the atomizing oil spray for a 


boiler. 
—Latta: American Gas Engineering Practice 


Pure water at 62° F.=62.355 pounds per 
Water cubic foot or 814 pounds per U. S. gallon. 
A cubic foot of water contains 71% gallons. 


30 pounds or 3.6 gallons of boiler feed water are 
required for each H. P. per hour. 

| gallon =0.13368 cubic feet = 231 cubic inches. 

| pound of water = 27.681 cubic inches at 39.1° F. 

To find the pressure of a column of water in pounds 


per square inch, multiply the height of the column in 
feet by .434. 


Steam rising from water at its boiling point 
(212° F.) has a pressure equal to atmos- 
phere (14.7 pounds per square inch). 


Steam 


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Ww On 
= TEMPERATURES = 
= Below we give the temperatures of iron, steel and other = 
= metals, under various conditions, according to the latest z= 
= scientific investigations. = 
= Centigrade} Fahrenheit = 
= Degrees Degrees = 
= cee . .meltal. - 229 445 = 
= Ld melts| 322 612 = 
= Lele re boils} 1040 1904 = 
= MO. melts 412 775 = 
= Aine... boils}, 1040 1904: = 
= PR MMITUT tgs crn. ed ve melts 700 1252 = 
= oN Vermeeyge onic... melts 957 1775 3 
= ESI) melts 1021 1870 = 
= Son Sa elts ea 029 1885 = 
= io... melts| 1038 1900 = 
= Cobattiaen sats sas»... melts 1100 2012 = 
= Castilron; white........... melts} - 1135 2075 = 
= PASEMYONG PYAY. ok bc ks melts {222 2230 = 
= Seed ee or melts) 1300 2372 = 
= PFGMWIOUSD tats 20k! Msn melts 1500 Zia. = 
= Nickal 0) rr melts} 1500 2732 = 
= Pivtmumeee 50. 2,..4...melts} . 2533 4593 = 
= Glass Furnace, between the pots. . 1375 2507 = 
: In the pots, refining.......... 1310 2390 = 
= In the pots, working......... 1045 1913 = 
= Tanks melted for casting........ 1310 2390 = 
= Annealing Glassware.......... ae bh = 
= to 555 to 1000 = 
= Siemens Crucible Steel aie 1460 | 2660 = 
= varies from. .........0..0 to 1590 | to 2894 = 
7 cS 


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Page one hundred thirteen 


NAMEN OE 


ATU ETH { 
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Gi, 
N 


TEMPERATURES 


It must be understood that these temperatures cannot 
be obtained on a commercial scale from the flames men- 
tioned. They are the temperatures of the hottest points 
in the flames, not that of the flame as a whole.—Searle; 
Clay-workers’ Hand Book. 


ww = 
= Continued = 
= Centigrade| Fahrenheit = 
= Degrees Degrees = 
= BESSEMER PROCESS S 
= Running the slag. 7... ..4.... 008 1580 2876 = 
= Running steel into ladle......... 1640 2984 = 
= Running steel into mold......... 1580 2876 | 
= Soaking pit furnace, ingot in..... 1200 2192 = 
= Ingot under hammer............ 1080 1976 = 
= OPEN HEARTH PROCESS = 
= Gas from producers.. /..) scene 720 1328 = 
= Gas entering generator.......... 400 152 es 
= Gas leaving generator........... 1200 2192 = 
= Air leaving generator............ 1000 1832 = 
= Fumes passing to shaft.......... 300 572 = 
“ End of fusion of charge.......... 1420 2588 = 
= Refining the steel............... 1500 2732 = 
= Running into ladle, first........ 1580 2876 = 
= Running into ladle, last.......... 1490 2714 = 
=| BLAST FURNACE = 
= Gray Bessemer = 
= Front of tuyere................. 1930 3506 = 
= At‘ tapping -33i 26.62 (one ae ee 1570 2858 = 
= MAXIMUM FLAME = 
= TEMPERATURES = 
= Bunsen Burner, gas fully aerated.. 1871 3400 = 
= Bunsen Burner, insufficient air. . 1712 3134 = 
= Acetylene flame:.... 033... .4 en 2548 4618 = 
= Alcohol sir? “ese Pe ae 1705 3101 = 
= Hydrogen—free flame and air... 1900 3452 = 
= Oxy-Hydrogen blow pipe flame.. . 2420 4388 = 
S = 


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Page one hundred fourteen 


RAO UUTEUYAUT S a \ UY 


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CUENUAUCUUCUCGCNTUNVACEVNTOUELUEONCTAUUOUOCCCVUCUUCUUOCTUUA ETC TUCCUACU TUT TUU EEUU CEUTUUUCAU CETUS 


PYROMETERS 


The Seger-Orton pyrometric cones for 
standardizing furnace and kiln temperatures 
and conditions, are means for eliminating guess- 
work. The cones are pyramid shaped, | to 1% 
inches high, with approximately a %-inch 
triangular base, and are compounds with 
known fusion points. They are used for regula- 
ting temperatures and conditions, rather than 
for accurate measurements. The indicated 
temperatures apply when the cone is affected 
sufficiently to cause the tip to bend over and 
touch the base. 


The Thermo-Electric Pyrometer operates 
on the principle that an electric current is 
generated when heat is applied to the coupling 
of two wires of dis-similar metals. The amount 
of current may be accurately measured by con- 
necting the free ends of the wires, by means of 
copper lead wires, to an electrical indicating 
instrument, which is calibrated to read in 
terms of temperature instead of electrical units. 


The thermo-couple may be made of an iron 
wire coupled with one of nickel, for instance, 
and such a device is called a ‘‘Base-metal’’ 
couple. The Walsh Plant is equipped with a 
Platinum and Platinum-Rhodium-alloy system, 
and each kiln is provided with a thermo-couple 
of these metals encased in a porcelain tube. 
The kiln is thus heated at the desired rate and 
is under close observation of the kiln foreman 

at all times. 


CA eee 


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AMMANANIA TAD ED ALDARA ED TE HAN OC PIVdVOT OOO T1V TADOOANDOVDVEODODIINNTHHNINLANY 


Page one hundred fifteen 


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Platinum-Rhodium Wire Hot Junction 


Gold- Plated Fiegi of 2-bore Fire Clay Insulator with 
nee Platinum Wire To Platrnum-Rhodiurm Couple ready To 
entify it ut into high fusing porcelain 


Protection tube. 


Indicator 


Illustrating the principle 
of Thermoelectric Pyrometers 


Bunsen Burner heating wires connected with 
Indicator. 


Nork Wire-Thermacouple Hot Junction 


ne Wela 
SSS pg gg 


pA 4 


ESS 


Nork Connector *11. 


Nork Wire Thermocouple with Insulators 
and Connector ready to put im Protection Tube 


Platinum-Alloy Thermo-Couple with insulating. 
protection tube of porcelain. 


—Courtesy of Wilson-Maeulen Co., New York 


RTM TELL ELEC ELEC CCCDPCODCRR COR CO CODD CDOCOLDUERECCOPEPO PE PRORLLLOCOCOUULLLULEE UROL 
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Page one hundred sixteen 


AQUA f= [I 


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=| Since the invention of the ‘‘Seger’’ pyrometric cones = 
= for measuring high temperatures by fusing substances = 
= with known fusion points, some of the standards that = 
= were used for this purpose have been corrected by the = 
= U. S. Bureau of Standards. The Bureau of Standards, = 
= therefore, has published a revised table of temperatures = 
= corresponding to these cones, and the revised list is printed = 
= together with Prof. E. Orton’s list. = 
— = 
: : 
= SOFTENING POINTS OF SEGER-ORTON = 
= CONES = 
= = 
= Cone According to According to = 
i Numbers Prof. E. Orton Bureau of Standards = 
= 022 1094° F. 590° C.|. -:1094° F. 590° C. = 
= 021 1148 620 1148 620 = 
— 020 1202 650 1202 650 = 
= 019 1256 680 1256 680 ; = 
= 018 1310 710 ’ 1310 710 = 
= 017 1364 740 1364 740 = 
= 016 1418 770 1418 770 a 
= O15 1472 800 1472 800 = 
= 014 1526 830 1526 830 — 
= 013 1580 860 1580 860 — 
os 012 1634 890 1634 890 = 
= O11 1688 920 1688 920 = 
= 010 1742 950 1742 950 — 
— 09 1778 970 1778 970 = 
= 08 1814 990 1814 990 = 
= 07 1850 1010 1850 1010 — 
= 06 1886 1030 1886 1030 = 
a 05 1922 1050 1922 1050 = 
= 04 1958 1070 1958 1070 = 
ewes 03 1994 1090 1994 1090 — 
= 02 2030 1110 2030 1110 = 
= Ol 2066 1130 2066 1130 = 
cp o> 


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Page one hundred seventeen 


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= SOFTENING POINTS OF SEGER- = 
= ORTON CONES = 
r= = 
= (Continued) = 
= Cone According to According to = 
= Numbers Prof. Orton Bureau of Standards = 
= | 2102° F. 1150° C.| —-2102° F. 1150° C, = 
= 2 2138 1170 2138 1170 = 
= 3 2174 1190 2174 1190 = 
= 4 2210 1210 2210 1210 = 
= 5 | 2246 1230 2246 1230 = 
= Gey arte 2282 1250 2282 1250 = 
= 7 wer ois 1270 2318 1270 = 
= 8 2354 1290 2354 1290 = 
= 9 2390 1310 2390 1310 = 
= 10 2426 1330 2426 1330 = 
= 1 2462 1350 2462 1350 = 
= 12 2498 1370 2498 1370 = 
= 13 2534 1390 2534 1390 = 
= 14 2570 1410 2570 1410 = 
= 15 2606 1430 2606 1430 = 
= 16 2642 1450 2642 1450 = 
= 17 2678 1470 2678 1470 = 
= 18 2714 1490 2714 1490 = 
= 19 2750 1510 2750 1510 = 
= 20 2786 1530 2786 1530 = 
= 21 2822 1550 as ding = 
= 22 2858 1570 = 
= 23 2894 1590 = 
= 24 2930 1610 sir pes = 
= 25 2966 1630 ss: ee = 
= 26 3002 1650 2912 1600 = 
= 27 3038 1670 2948 1620 = 
= 28 3074 1690 2975 1635 = 
= 29 - 3110 1710 3002 1650 = 
= 30 3146 1730 3038 1670 cn 
= 31 3182 1750 3065 1685 = 
= 32 3218 1770 3101 1705 = 
= 33 3254 1790 3128 1720 = 
= 34 3290 1810 3164 1740 = 
= 35 3326 1830 3200 1760 = 
= 36 3362 1850 3236 1780 = 
= 37 3398 1870 3272 1800 = 
= 38 3434 1890 3308 1820 = 
= 39 3470 1910 3344 1840 = 
= 40 3506 1930 3380 1860 = 
= Ss 


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Page one hundred eighteen 


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Kaul KD 
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Fusion Tests The American Society for 

Testing Materials has adopted 
a series of tests for determining, approximately, 
the quality of fire-brick.! These tests are help- 
ful, and will doubtless lead to greater develop- 
ments, but as they have not yet been closely 
co-ordinated with actual manufacturing con- 
ditions, the inexperienced investigator is likely 
to reach untrustworthy conclusions. There- 
fore, tests that are made by the Ceramic 
Departments of several universities,? by Mellon 
Institute of Industrial Research, Pittsburgh, 
Pa., or by the U. S. Bureau of Standards, Wash- 
ington, D. C., are more dependable because of 
their more accurate interpretation with relation 
to practical operations. 


Boiler H. P. A boiler horse-power is equiva- 

lent to the evaporation of 34.5 
pounds of water per hour from and at 212° F. 
The rated horse-power, or the “Builder's 
rating,’ is the number of square feet of heating 
surface in the boiler divided, in the case of sta- 
tionary boilers by ten or twelve, which after 
years of practice have been accepted as the 
heating surface equivalent to one horse-power. 
Ten is the more commonly used standard. 


(U. S. Fuel Administration, Bul. No. 1.) 


(To ascertain heating surface in 
tubular boilers, multiply two-thirds of 
the circumference of the boiler by length 
of boiler in inches, and add to it the 
area of all the tubes.) 


1 See pages 100-108, inclusive. 


2 Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio; Cornell University, 
Ithaca, N. Y.; University of Illinois, Champaign, Ill.; Iowa State 
College, Ames, Iowa; Rutgers College, New Brunswick, N. J. among 
others. 


; Coe ee ae 


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Page one hundred nineteen 


CAM NNT DPE 


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— 


Approximate Total Figures in the last 
Heat of Combustion two columns for 
of One Pound of Fuel amount of air required, 

are the minimum, and 
in practice twice or more times these amounts 
must be employed. Thus, ordinary coal usually 
needs 18 to 25 pounds of air per pound of coal 
in actual practice. 


Equivalent Air chemically 
evaporation consumed per 
of water pound of fuel— 
from and at Cu. Ft. at 62° F.— 
B. T. U. 212° F. per POUNDS 


Peat, dried..... 12,000 12 7% 100 
Petroleum...... 27,000 28 15 200 


—Searle: Clayworkers’ Hand Book 


Radiation Losses These figures are not 
of Heat Through exact, but are a fair aver- 
Brick Wall age of radiation losses of 
heat through a brick wall. 
They show approximate losses per hour for 
each square foot of surface and for each degree 
(Fahrenheit) of difference in temperature 
between the two sides of the wall. 
44-inch Wall......... 0.45 B. T. U. per hour 
9 -inch Wall......... .36 B. T. U. per hour 
1314-inch Wall......... .28 B. T. U. per hour 
18 -inch Wall......... .25 B. T. U. per hour 
Window Glass......... .75 B. T. U. per hour 
—Searle: Clayworkers’ Hand Book 


NOTE — Insulation of furnace walls and roofs to save 
radiation losses is not always good practice. A fire-brick 
with one cool side or end will last much longer than one 
that is subjected to intense heat on all sides. Hence, the 
expense of loss of heat by radiation must be figured by 
comparison with the expense of more rapid deterioration 
of the brick-work when insulated. 


MUERTE TTT CCC ATOM TUTTO MUM NEMO OTETCLUTRPPLLLS CLU ECDL DOLL 


TTTTTLUCLAUUUTUTR AT ELILU ALOR M ERRATIC LECO ACUI ILUDEUIOLIALLPRRORAOIOIRORREROARAORDRARAPRMELERUEOLICCPRECITOPPPETNONIUITIRTIAOLIUPRREP ORE CCE URE eRtl ge 5- 


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Page one hundred twenty 


QUT eo 


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* One cubic foot of air weighs 0.0803 pounds. 
Weight One pound of air is equivalent to 12.4 cubic 
fA 
o ir feet at pressure of one atmosphere (14.7 
pounds per square inch) and at 32 ° F. 


Heat A Calorie, the French unit for measuring 
Unit heat, is the quantity of heat required to 
nits raise the temperature of | kilogram (2.2 


pounds) of pure water 1° Centigrade (1.8° F.) at.or near 
oh CEE ee ian 

A British Thermal Unit (B. T. U.) is the quantity 
of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of 
pure water |° F. at or near 39.1° F. 


One B. T. U., therefore, is equivalent to 0.252 calories, 
and one calorie equals 3.968 B. T. U. 


The starting temperature of the water is placed at 
4° C. because water is at its maximum density at that 
temperature. A pound of fuel is the unit for measuring 


calorific value in B. T. U. 


Specific The relative quantity of heat required to 
H raise the temperature of a substance I|° F., 

eat by comparison with the heat required to 
raise the same weight of water I|° (from 39.1° F.) is termed 
the Specific Heat of that substance. 


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Page one hundred twenty-two 


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USEFUL BAGS 


To find circumference of a circle multiply 
diameter by 3.1416. To find diameter of a 
circle multiply circumference by .31831. 

To find area of a circle multiply square of 
diameter by .7854. 

To find area of a triangle multiply base by 
one-half perpendicular height. 

To find surface of a ball multiply square of 
diameter by 3.1416. 

To find side of an equal square multiply 
diameter by .8862. 

To find cubic inches in a ball multiply cube 
of diameter by .5236. 

Doubling the diameter of a pipe increases 
its capacity four times. 


To find capacity of tanks any size: Given 
dimensions of a cylinder in inches, to find its 
capacity in U. S. gallons—Square the diameter, 
multiply by the length and by .0034. 


OUT OPS THE Ah 


Ask a friend what the fourth most valuable 
American mineral product is in terms of total 
production. Ask him where gold stands. Then 
show him this 1920 table, which surprises most 
people: 


Coal (soft). .$1,950,000,000 Stone........ $120,500,000 
Iron (pig)... 1,137,926,000 Lead (refined). 76,296,000 
Petroleum... 1,360,000,000 Sand......... 62,694,000 
Clay products 364,220,000 Silver........ 57,420,000 
Copper..... 222,467,000 Gold......... 49,509,000 


The saying that our wealth comes out of 


the earth is well known, but it is little under- 


stood. 
—Collier’s Weekly 


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= Sin uk? J = 
= COMPARISON OF CENTIGRADE = 
= AND FAHRENHEIT THERMOMETERS = 
= Centi- behrene Centi- Fahren- Centi- Fahren- = 
= grade heit grade heit grade | heit = 
= 1815 3299 1770 3218 1725 3137 = 
= 1814 3297.2 1769 3216.2 1724 3135.2 a 
= 1813 3295 .4 1768 3214.4 1723 3133.4 = 
= 1812 3293 .6 1767 3112.6 22 3131.6 — 
4 1811 3291.8 1766 3210.8 1721 3129.8 — 
= 1810 3290 1765 3209 1720 3128 = 
— 1809 3288.2 1764 3207.2 1719 3126.2 (4 
_ 1808 3286.4 1763 3205 .4 1718 3124.4 = 
= 1807 3284.6 1762 3203 .6 1717 3122.6 = 
=~ 1806 3282.8 1761 3201.8 1716 3120.8 = 
= 1805 3281 1760 3200 1715 3119 = 
a= 1804 3279.2 1759 3198.2 1714 SM 2 = 
= 1803 3277 .4 1758 3196.4 1713 3115.4 = 
= 1802 3275.6 1757 3194.6 1712 3113.6 = 
= 1801 3273.8 1756 3192.8 AN SNi TI — 
= 1800 3272 1755 3191 1710 3110 = 
= 1799 3270.2 1754 3189.2 1709 3108.2 = 
= 1798 3268.4 1753 3187.4 1708 3106.4 -_ 
= 1797 3266.6 (7/502 3185.6 1707 3104.6 = 
ol 1796 3264.8 (b7/eui] 3183.8 1706 3102.8 = 
= 1795 3263 1750 3182 1705 3101 = 
_ 1794 3261.2 1749 3180.2 1704 3099.2 = 
— 1793 3259.4 1748 3178.4 1703 3097.4 = 
—_ 1792 3257.6 1747 3176.6 1702 3095.6 = 
a 1791 3255.8 1746 3174.8 1701 3093.8 = 
= 1790 3254 1745 3173 1700 3092 = 
= 1789 B25 Zaz 1744 3 72 1699 3090.2 = 
= 1788 3250.4 1743 3169.4 1698 3088 . 4 = 
= 1787 3248.6 1742 3167.6 1697 3086.6 — 
— 1786 3246.8 1741 3165.8 1696 3084.8 = 
= 1785 3245 1740 3164 1695 3083 = 
= 1784 3243 .2 1739 3162.2 1694 3081.2 = 
= 1783 3241.4 1738 3160.4 1693 3079.4 = 
= 1782 3239.6 1737 3158.6 1692 3077.6 = 
= 1781 3237.8 1736 3156.8 1691 3075.8 a 
= 1780 3236 1735 3155 1690 3074 = 
= 1779 3234.2 1734 315322 1689 3072.2 = 
me 1778 3232.4 1733 3151.4 1688 3070.4 — 
- 1777 3230.6 1732 3149.6 1687 3068 .6 =| 
-= 1776 3228.8 1731 3147.8 1686 3066.8 = 
= 1775 B22 1730 3146 1685 3065 = 
= 1774 3225.2 1729 3144.2 1684 3063 .2 = 
= 1773 3223 .4 1728 3142.4 1683 3061.4 — 
= 72 3221.6 1727 3140.6 1682 3059.6 = 
4 1771 3219.8 1726 3138.8 1681 3057.8 = 
Typ 


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Page one hundred twenty-three 


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Centi- 
grade 


1680 
1679 
1678 
1677 
1676 


1675 
1674 
1673 
1672 
1671 


1670 
1669 
1668 
1667 
1666 


1665 
1664 
1663 
1662 
1661 


1660 
1659 
1658 
1657 
1656 


1655 
1654 
1653 
1652 
1651 


1650 
1649 
1648 
1647 
1646 


1645 
1644 
1643 
1642 
1641 


1640 
1639 
1638 
1637 
1636 


COMPARISON OF CENTIGRADE 
AND FAHRENHEIT THERMOMETERS 


Continued 
Fahren- Centi- Fahren- 
heit grade heit 
3056 1635 2975 
3054.2 1634 2973 .2 
3052.4 1633 2971.4 
3050.6 1632 2969 .6 
3048.8 1631 2967 .8 
3047 1630 2966 
3045.2 1629 2964 .2 
3043 .4 1628 2962 .4 
3041.6 1627 2960 .6 
3039.8 1626 2958.8 
3038 1625 2957 
3036.2 1624 2955.2 
3034.4 1623 2953.4 
3032.6 1622 2951.6 
3030.8 1621 2949.8 
3029 1620 2948 
3027.2 1619 2946.2 
3025.4 1618 2944 .4 
3023.6 1617 2942.6 
3021.8 1616 2940.8 
3020 1615 2939 
3018.2 1614 2937.2 
3016.4 1613 2935 .4 
3014.6 1612 2933 .6 
3012.8 1611 2931.8 
3011 1610 2930 
3009 .2 - 1609 2928.2 
3007 .4 1608 2926.4 
3005.6 1607 2924.6 
3003.8 1606 2922.8 
3002 1605 2921 
3000.2 1604 2919.2 
2998 .4 1603 2917.4 
2996.6 1602 2915.6 
2994.8 1601 2913.8 
2993 1600 2912 
2991.2 1599 2910.2 
2989 .4 1598 2908 . 4 
2987 .6 1597 2906.6 
2985 .8 1596 2904.8 
2984 1595 2903 
2982 .2 1594 2901 .2 
2980 . 4 1593 2899 . 4 
2978.6 1592 2897 .6 
2976.8 1591 2895.8 


DORN @ABN @2ARBN BARN BAAN BORN @SHRAN WAAN 


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Page one hundred twenty-four 


© UTDU OTA UUHVTATUTANOHDDOUODULOAHANEOUOTNTULANY 
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= Saingy Lou p — 
Sy COMPARISON OF CENTRIGRADE = 
= AND = 
= FAHRENHEIT THERMOMETERS = 
= Continued = 
= Centi- Fahren- Centi- Fahren- Centi- Fahren- = 
= grade heit grade heit grade heit = 
= 1545 2813 1500 2732 1455 2651 = 
= 1544 2811.2 1499 2730.2 1454 2649.2 = 
= 1543 2809 .4 1498 2728.4 1453 2647 .4 = 
= 1542 2807 .6 1497 2726.6 1452 2645 .6 = 
= 1541 2805 .8 1496 2724.8 1451 2643 .8 = 
= 1540 2804 1495 2723 1450 2642 = 
= 1539 2802.2 1494 IPA. 92 1449 2640.2 = 
= 1538 2800.4 1493 2719.4 1448 2638.4 as 
= “Nee 7/ 2798 .6 1492 2717.6 1447 2636.6 = 
= 1536 2796.8 1491 2715.8 1446 2634.8 = 
= 1535 2795 1490 2714 1445 2633 = 
= 1534 2793 .2 1489 I IAA 1444 2631.2 = 
= 1533 2791.4 1488 2710.4 1443 2629 .4 = 
ou 1532 2789 .6 1487 2708.6 1442 2627 .6 = 
ne 1531 2787 .8 1486 2706.8 1441 2625.8 = 
= 1530 2785 1485 2705 1440 2624 = 
= 1529 2784 .2 1484 2703 .2 1439 2622.2 = 
= 1528 2782 .4 1483 2701.4 1438 2620.4 = 
a 1527 2780 .6 1482 2699 .6 1437 2618.6 —= 
= 1526 2778.8 1481 2697 .8 1436 2616.8 = 
= 1525 PAT EG 1480 2696 1435 2615 = 
= 1524 PH sy Ps 1479 2694 .2 1434 2613.2 4 
k= 1523 2773 .4 1478 2692.4 1433 2611.4 = 
= 1522 2771.6 1477 2690.6 1432 2609 .6 — 
= 1521 2769.8 1476 2688.8 1431 2607 .8 = 
= 1520 2768 1475 2687 1430 2606 = 
— 1519 2766.2 1474 2685 .2 1429 2604 .-2 = 
= 1518 2764.4 1473 2683 .4 1428 2602 .4 = 
—= 1517 2762.6 1472 2681.6 1427 2600 .6 ae 
= 1516 2760.8 1471 2679.8 1426 2598.8 = 
= 1515 2759 1470 2678 1425 2597 = 
= 1514 DIS e2 1469 2676.2 1424 2595.2 = 
= 1513 2755.4 1468 2674.4 1423 2593 .4 _ 
= 1512 2109306 1467 2672.6 1422 2591.6 — 
= 1511 2751.8 1466 2670.8 1421 2589 8 = 
= 1510 2750 1465 2669 1420 2588 = 
= 1509 2748.2 1464 2667 .2 1419 2586.2 _ 
= 1508 2746.4 1463 2665 .4 1418 2584 .4 == 
= 1507 2744 .6 1462 2663 .6 1417 2582.6 — 
= 1506 2742.8 1461 2661.8 1416 2580.8 = 
= 1505 2741 1460 2660 1415 2579 = 
— 1504 2739.2 1459 2658.2 1414 ZOLIEe on 
= 1503 2737.4 1458 2656.4 1413 2575.4 = 
= 1502 2735.6 1457 2654.6 1412 2573.6 = 
= 8 8 te = 
MH, = 


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“4 Page one hundred twenty-five 


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Page one hundred twenty-six 


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= COMPARISON OF CENTIGRADE 
= AND FAHRENHEIT THERMOMETERS 
= Continued 

= Centi- Fahren- Centi- Fahren- | Centi- Fahren- 
= grade heit grade heit | grade heit 
= 1410 2570 1320 2408 870 1598 
= 1409 2568.2 1310 2390 860 1580 
= 1408 2566.4 1300 PES W {92 850 1562 
= 1407 2564.6 1290 2354 840 1544 
me 1406 2562.8 1280 2336 830 1526 
= 1405 2561 1270 2318 820 1508 
— 1404 2559e2 1260 2300 810 1490 
= 1403 2557.4 1250 2282 800 1472 
— 1402 2555.6 1240 2264 790 1454 
= 1401 2553.8 1230 2246 780 1436 
= 1400 2552 1220 2228 770 1418 
= 1399 2550.2 1210 2210 760 1400 
= 1398 2548.4 1200 2192 750 1382 
= 1397 2546.6 1190 2174 740 1364 
— 1396 2544.8 1180 2156 730 1346 
= 1395 2543 1170 2138 720 1328 
= 1394 2541.2 1160 2120 710 1310 
=e 1393 2539.4 1150 2102 700 1292 
= 1392 2537.6 1140 2084 690 1274 
= 139] 2535.8 1130 2066 680 1256 
= 1390 2534 1120 2048 670 1238 
= 1389 2532 a2 1110 2030 660 1220 
= 1388 2530.4 1100 2012 650 1202 
— 1387 2528.6 1090 1994 640 1184 
= 1386 2526.8 1080 1976 630 1166 
= 1385 2525 1070 1958 620 1148 
= 1384 25235 e2 1060 1940 610 1130 
= 1383 2521.4 1050 1922 600 LI t2 
= 1382 2519.6 1040 1904 590 1094 
= 1381 2517.8 1030 1886 580 1076 
= 1380 2516 1020 1868 570 1058 
= 1379 2514.2 1010 1850 560 1040 
4 1378 2512.4 1000 1832 550 1022 
4 1377 2510.6 990 1814 540 1004 
= 1376 2508.8 980 1796 530 986 
= 1375 2507 970 1778 520 968 
= 1374 2505.2 960 1760 510 950 
J 1373 2503 .4 950 1742 500 932 
a 1372 2501.6 940 1724 490 914 
= 1371 2499.8 930 1706 480 896 
= 1370 2498 920 1688 470 878 
1360 2480 910 1670 460 860 
= 1350 2462 900 1652 450 842 
—_ 1340 2444 890 1634 440 824 
= 1330 2426 880 1616 430 806 


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COMPARISON OF CENTIGRADE 
AND FAHRENHEIT THERMOMETERS 


Continued 
Centi- Fahren- Centi- Fahren- ' Centi- Fahren- 
grade heit grade heit grade heit 
420 788 220 | 428 20 68 
410 770 210 410 10 50 
400 752 200 392 0 32 
390 734 190 374 I 30.2 
380 716 180 356 De 28 .4 
370 698 170 338 3 26.6 
360 680 160 320 4 24.8 
350 662 150 302 5 23 
340 644 140 284 6 22 
330 626 130 266 7 19.4 
320 608 120 248 8 17.6 
310 590 110 230 9 15.8 
300 572 100 PAIL 10 14 
290 554 90 194 11 22. 
280 536 80 176 12 10.4 
270 518 70 158 13 8.6 
260 500 60 140 14 6.8 
250 482 50 122 15 5 
240 464 40 104 16 Bez 
230 446 30 86 17 1.4 
18 0.4 


Zero in Centigrade is the freezing point of water. 


To change degrees Centigrade to Fahrenheit, multi- 
ply by 9, divide by 5 and add 32. 


To change degrees Fahrenheit to Centigrade, sub- 
tract 32, divide by 9 and multiply by 5. 


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= EQUIVALENT VALUES OF ELECTRICAL 
= AND MECHANICAL UNITS 

= (H. Ward Leonard in “The Electrical Engineer,’’ February 25, 1895. 
— Revised November, 1907.) 

= From “‘Manual for Engineers’, Copyrighted by Charles E. Ferris, B.S. 
= Unit Equivalent Value in Other Units 
= 1. joule per second. 

= .00134 H.-P. 

— 3,412 heat-units per hour. 

one | Watt. .7373 ft.-lb. per second. 

on .0035 lb. water evap. per hour from and at 212° F. 
=| 44.24 ft.-lbs. per minute. 

= | lb. pull at half a mile per hour. (approx.) 
= | Watt 8.19 heat-units per sq. ft. per minute. 

| per sq. in. 6371. ft.-lbs. per sq. ft. per minute. 

i .193 H.-P. per sq. ft. 

— 1.055 watt seconds. 

— 778. ft.-lbs. 

ps 107.6 kilogram meters. 

— 1 Heat Unit .000293 K. W. hour. 

a) -000393 H. P. hour. 

— .0000688 Ib. carbon oxidized. 

= .001036 lb. water evap. from and at 212° F. 
= 1 Heat-Unit .122 watts per sq. in. 

_ per sq. ft. .0176 K. W. per sq. ft. 

= per min. .0236 H. P. per sq. ft. 

= 7.233 ft.-lbs. 

— 1 Kilogram .00000365 H.-P. hour. 

= Meter. .00000272 K. W. hour. 

= .0093 heat-unit. 

= 14.544 heat-units. 

= 1.11 Ibs. anthracite coal oxidized. 

= 1 Lb. Carbon 2.5 lbs. dry wood oxidized. 

= Oxidized 21. cu. ft. illuminating gas. 

= With Perfect 4.26 K. W. hours. 

— Efficiency. 5.71 H.-P. hours. 

= 11,315,000 ft.-lbs. 

= 15. Ibs. of water evap. from and at 212° F. 
= .283 K. W. hours. 

= .379 H.-P. hour. 

= 1 Lb. Water 965.7 heat-units. 

‘osan Evap. from 103.900 kg. m. 

-_ and at 212° F. 1,019,000 joules. 

= 751.300 ft.-lbs. 

= .0664 lb. carbon oxidized. 

7) 


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EQUIVALENT VALUES OF ELECTRICAL 
AND MECHANICAL UNITS 


(H. Ward Leonard in “The Electrical Engineer,’’ February 25, 1895. 
Revised November, 1907.) 


From “‘Manual for Engineers,’’ Copyrighted by Charles E. Ferris, B.S. 


TOTTI 


PAvvAOe ven vEEUENUEUCUURO ANANTH TTT TTT 


Unit Equivalent Value in Other Units 


1,000. watt hours. 

1.34 H.-P. hours. 
2,654,200 ft.-lbs. 
3,600,000. joules. 

1K. W. Hour | 3,412. heat-units. 
367,000. kilogram meters. 
.235 lb. carbon oxidized with perfect efficiency. 
3.53 lbs. water evap. from and at 212° F. 

22.75 lbs. of water raised from 62° to 212° F. 


.746 K. W. hours. 

1,980,000. ft.-lbs. 
2.545. heat-units. 

1 H.-P. Hour 273.740 kg. m. 
.175 lbs. carbon oxidized with perfect efficiency. 
2.64 lbs. water evap. from and at 212° F. 


17.0 lbs. water raised from 62° F. to 212° F. 


1,000 watts. 
1.34 H.-P. 
2,654,200 ft.-lbs. per hour. 
44,240. ft.-lbs. per minute. 
| Kilo-Watt | 737.3 ft.-lbs. per second. 
3,412. heat-units per hour. 
56.9 heat-units per minute. 
-948 heat-units per second. 
.2275 lbs. carbon oxidized per hour. 
3.53 lbs. water evap. per hour from and at 212° F. 


746. watts. 
.746 K. W. 
33000. ft.-lbs. per minute. 
550. ft.-lbs. per second. 
1 H.-P. 2,545. heat-units per hour. 
42.4 heat-units per minute. 
707 heat-units per second. 
.175 lbs. carbon oxidized per hour. 
2.64 lbs. of water evap. per hour from and at 212° F. 


| watt second. 
-000000278 K. W. hour. 

| Joule .102 kg. m. 

-.0009477 heat-units. 

.7373 ft.-lb. 


.1356 joules. 
1.3883 kg. m. 

1 Ft.-Lb. .000000377 K. W. hours. 
.001285 heat-units. 
.0000005 H.-P. hour. 


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S Ad) Of, 
= COMPARISONS OF FUEL OIL AND ~ 
= COAL = 
= ELATIVE BOILER EFFICIENCIES AND FUEL CONSUMP- = 
= TION. A useful table calculated by C. C. Moore and Company, — 
— Engineers, and published in the ‘‘Mehanical Engineers’ Hand- — 
— Book’’ (McGraw-Hill) gives a means of determining the relative ar 
— consumption of coal and oil with different boiler efficiencies. This = 
= assumes the heating value of fuel oil at 18,500 B. T. U. per pound. = 
= Water Evaporated at and = 
= Cross Noe : From 212° F per Pound Coal = 
a Boiler Boiler Evapo- —_ 
= Efficiency| Efficiency] orated 5 6 7 8 on 
: ate Bent : 
-_ Per Cent.| Per:Cent |Per Lb.Oil| a —*) wen eee = 
= ° Pounds of Oil Equal to = 
— sa Ata One Pound of Coal nome 
= ee ee = 
= 73 71 13.54 0.3693) 0.4431} 0.5170} 0.5909 = 
= 74 TZ 13.73 0.3642} 0.4370} 0.5099} 0.5827 = 
a 75 73 13.92 0.3592! 0.4310} 0.5029) 0.5747 4 
i 76 74 14.11 0.3544) 0.4253) 0.4961} 0.5670 = 
oe 77 75 14.30 0.3497) 0.4196} 0.4895} 0.5594 = 
= 78 76 14.49 0.3451) 0.4141) 0.4831} 0.5521 = 
_ 79 77 14.68 0.3406} 0.4087) 0.4768} 0.5450 = 
= 80 78 14.87 0.3363} 0.4035) 0.4708} 0.5380 = 
= 81 79 15.06 0.3320} 0.3984) 0.4648} 0.5312 = 
= 82 80 15325 0.3279} 0.3934] 0.4590} 0.5246 = 
— 83 81 15.44 0.3238) 0.3886} 0.4534) 0.5181 —_ 
= Water Evaporated at and = 
= Grow Nee Net From 212° F per Pound Coal = 
= Boiler Boiler Evapo- — 
= Efficiency! Efficiency| rated 9 10 11 12 = 
= (Oil) (Oil) Lbs. Water = 
= Dement Tere Bec eee Pounds of Oil Equal to = 
= One Pound of Coal = 
= 73 71 13.54 0.6647| 0.7386) 0.8124) 0.8863 = 
= 74 72 13.73 0.6556} 0.7283) 0.8011) 0.8740 = 
= 75 73 13.92 0.6466} 0.7184} 0.7903) 0.8621 ~— 
= 76 74 14.11 0.6378} 0.7087} 0.7796} 0.8505 = 
pt 77 75 14.30 0.6294) 0.6993! 0.7692) 0.8392 =. 
= 78 76 14.49 0.6211} 0.6901} 0.7591) 0.8281 — 
4 79 77 14.68 0.6131} 0.6812!) 0.7493) 0.8174 a= 
= 80 78 14.87 0.6053} 0.6725) 0.7398) 0.8070 = 
ose 81 79 15.06 0.5976| 0.6640} 0.7304) 0.7968 = 
— 82 80 1525 0.5902) 0.6557) 0.7213) 0.7869 = 
= 83 81 15.44 0.5829} 0.6447} 0.7125) 0.7772 = 
= In the above table, the ““Net Efficiency” is equal to the “‘Gross = 
= Efficiency’ minus 2 per cent, or the steam consumption of 2 per cent —_ 
= taken from the gross efficiency gives the net efficiency. = 
= = 
My oO 


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COMPARISONS OF FUEL OIL AND 
COAL 


Continued 


Boiler tests have often given a gross efficiency of 83 per cent when 
using oil fuel but this is rather a high figure to expect under service 
conditions or with boilers not especially constructed for the use of oil. 
With efficient burners, furnace, and careful management there is no 
reason why a gross efficiency of 80 per cent ,or 14.87 pounds of water 
per pound of oil, could not be maintained, and 78 per cent might be 
considered good work. With re-converted coal furnaces, 75 to 76 per 
cent will probably be the expected range for good operations. 


Ernest H. Peabody of the Babcock and Wilcox Company states 
that while tests have been made with coal claiming 80 per cent gross 
efficiency that such results can only be obtained with the largest units 
and having the most efficient mechanical stokers. This is an excep- 
tional performance, and is not likely to be attained in daily service. 
Probably 76 to 78 per cent would be the everyday upper limit. With 
hand stoking, 75 per cent is about the maximum that can be attained 
while 65 per cent may be considered as very good average work. Much 
more excess air is necessary with coal stokers than with oil, and a 
tremendous excess of air is necessary with hand firing. This air of 
course pulls down the boiler efficiency. 


The excess air ordinarily necessary with fuel oil ranges from 20 to 
25 per cent, the best results with hand fired coal requires 50 per cent 
excess air, while average hand firing will run as high as 80 to 100 per 
cent excess. 


The table may be used in two ways: (1) To find the pounds 
of oil equal to one pound of coal with a given boiler efficiency, or (2) 
To find the boiler efficiency when the evaporation per pound of oil is 
known or when the pounds of water evaporated per pound of coal is 
known. For example, if the known boiler efficiency is 80 per cent, and 
10 pounds of water are evaporated per pound of coal, then 0.6725 
pounds of oil will be equal to one pound of coal. The evaporation per 
pound of oil is 14.87 pounds of water from and at 212° F. It will be 
noted that the relative value of oil becomes better as the efficiency 
increases. 


Copyright 1921 by Petroleum Age. 
Compiled by J. B. Rathbun. 


PTO eee eZ 


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Page one hundred thirty-one 


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OIL FOR INDUSTRIAL FURNACES 


NNEALING FURNACES FOR STEEL CASTINGS. In a 
paper read before the Engineer’s Club of Philadelphia, James E. 
Wilson gave some data [regarding the use of fuel ‘oil in annealing 
furnaces. The oil used had a gravity of approximately 32° Baume, 
a flash point of 212° F., and a calorific value of 140,000 B. T. U. per 
gallon. Two types of furnace were described ; (1) The car type furnace 
in which large castings were introduced into the furnace on a wheeled 
car, and (2) A hand loaded furnace of smaller size for small castings. 
igh pressure compressed air burners were used in the car type furnace, 
and low pressure burners in the hand loaded furnace, the latter operat- 
ing at a blower pressure of about 8 ounces per square inch. In his 
summary, Mr. Wilson says that there is little to choose between the 
two types of burners in regard to oil consumption, but that the low 
pressure type effected a saving because no compressor was necessary. 
The following are the principal dimensions and capacities of the 
two furnaces: 


Capac-| Oil Dura- 

Width |Length| Height] ity in | Req. | tion of 
Furnace Type Feet Feet Feet | Lbs. | Gals. | Heat 
p. hr. 


Car Type Furnace.} 5’—0” | 12’—-0”| 3’-6” | 14,000 20 |10Ohours 
Hand loaded Type.| 4’—0” 8°—-0” | .2’-0” 3,000 20 8hours 
| 


Thus, in the car type furnace 20 X 10 =200 gals, were required to 
anneal 14,000 pounds of castings, while in the hand loaded type 
20 X 8=160 gallons were required to anneal 3,000 pounds of castings. 


Regulation must be carefully attended to, for if the heat is too 
intense, the thin portions of the castings will be burned while if the 
temperature is below the required point the physical structure will not 
be sufficiently changed. Two burners were used at either end of the 
furnaces, and these led into combustion chambers which prevented 
direct contact of the flames on the metal. If the flame is allowed to 
smoke, the carbon will be absorbed by the metal when heated between 
1400-1600° F., and the composition of the castings will be changed 
making them hard and brittle on the surface. Smoke increases carbon 
content. The furnace linings were burned out about once a year and 
were renewed. 


COAL EQUIVALENTS IN STEEL WORKING FURNACES. 

N. Best gives the fuel oil requirements of various types of steel 
furnaces in terms of coal consumption. Thus, if the coal consumption 
of a certain class of furnace is known a close estimate can be made on 
the fuel oil consumption. These figures are in terms of gallons of oil 
per long ton of coal (2,240 pounds): 


Flue Welding Furnaces 58 gallons of oil =1 ton of coal 


Forging Furnaces 80 gallons of oil =1 ton of ccal 
Heat Treating Furnaces (Low Tempera- 

80 gallons of oil =1 ton of coal 
Heat Treating Furnaces (High Tempera- 

63 gallons of oil =1 ton of coal 


63 gallons of oil =1 ton of coal 


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OIL FOR INDUSTRIAL FURNACES 


Continued 


OPEN HEARTH STEEL FURNACES. Approximately one 
barrel of fuel oil will melt one ton of steel in an open hearth furnace with 
the walls already hot. Oil is much preferable to producer gas for this 
purpose in the majority of cases for the sulphur content of oil is less 
than that of the average coal used in steel mills, and the oil is more 
easily and cheaply handled than a gas producer plant. 


Adopting the usual equivalent of 40 gallons oil =400 pounds of 
coal =heat required to melt one ton of steel, it will be found that coal 
introduces 8 pounds of sulphur while the oil introduces only 6 pounds of 
sulphur, both fuels assumed as carrying 2 percent of sulphur, and having 
the same heating value. This difference is due to the smaller quantity 
of oil required. Heavy oils contain more sulphur than the lighter 
varieties, so that to reduce sulphur to a minimum, light oils are used 
until the slag forms and then the heavier and more effective oils are 
turned on to complete the heat. Ordinarily this takes 50% light oil 
and 50% heavy oil. Not much sulphur is absorbed from any fuel after 
the slag forms. 


Copyright 1921 by Petroleum Age. 
Compiled by J. B. Rathbun. 


ATM EOE | 


Vy 


Page one hundred thirty-three 


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COMPARISON OF OIL AND VARIOUS 
FUELS 


COMPARISONS OF OIL AND COAL. The following table, com- 
piled from data in Bulletin No. 15 of the Kansas City Laboratories, 
will be a rough guide to the equivalents of oil in terms of various fuels. 
Exact comparisons of this sort are impossible to make because of the 
great range in the variations of composition. 


EQUIVALENTS t 

1 Ton of Coal =3.60 Bbls. of Oil =24,500 Cu. Ft. of Natural Gas. 

1 Gallon of Oil = 13.1 Lbs. Coal = 160 Cu. Ft. Natural Gas. 

1 Barrel Oil =0.278 Ton Coal =680.6 Cu. Ft. Natural Gas. 

1 Pound Oil =1.75 Lbs. Coal =21.3 Cu. Ft. Natural Gas. 

1 Pound Coal =0.763 Gallon Oil =12.2 Cu. Ft. Natural Gas. 

These figures are taken from the theoretical heat content as 
determined by the calorimeter and do not take furnace efficiency, boiler 
efficiency, etc., into account. The data is based on the following 
properties of the fuels: 

Fuel Oil of 25.7° Baume gravity, 7.5 pounds per gallon, 19,225 
B. T. U. per pound, and 144,200 B. T. U. per gallon. 

Slack Coal =11,000 B. T. U. per pound. 

Natural Gas =900 B. T. U. per cubic foot. 


COMPARISON OF OIL AND OTHER FUELS. From an 
article in PETROLEUM MAGAZINE by W.N. Best, the value of oil 
for various purposes is given in terms of tons of coal and in commercial 
units of other fuels. 

1 Long Ton of Coal in Locomotive................ 180 Gallons of Oil 

1 Long Ton of Coal in Average Stationary Boiler. ..147 Gallons of Oil 

1 Long Ton of Coal in Steamer (Mech. Atomization)..180 Gallons of Oil 
3.25 Barrels of Oil =5,000 Lbs. Hickory =4,550 Lbs. White Oak. 


6 Gallons Oil =1,000 Cu. Ft. of Commercial or Water Gas (1,000 
B. T. U. /Cu. Ft.). 


3.5 Bae =i] Fe). Cu. Ft. of Commercial or Water Gas (620 
2.25 Gallons Oil. =1,000 Cu. Ft. Byproduct Coke Oven Gas (440 


B. T. U./Cu. Ft.). 
0.42 ere oe =1,000 Cu. Ft. Blast Furnace Gas (90 B. T. U. per 
u t.). 


These values are based upon the calorific values only. 


COMPARATIVE COSTS OF OIL AND COAL. A handy rule 
for approximately determining the relative costs of coal and fuel oil is 
provided by Ernest H. Peabody of the Babcock and Wilcox Company. 
This is based on the fact that in steam making, one pound of oil is equal 
to 1.5 pounds of coal, or that 200 U. S. gallons of oil equals one long ton 
(2,240 pounds) of coal. Conversely, one long ton of coal equals about 
4.5 barrels of oil. We can now state the approximate rule for com- 
parative costs. 

““When the price of coal in dollars per ton (2,240 pounds) is double 
the price of oil in cents per U. S. gallon, the cost of fuel for producing a 
certain boiler capacity will be the same for both fuels. Thus two-cent 
oil equals $4.00 coal, or four-cent oil equals $8.00 coal.” 

This rule takes into consideration the probable increased boiler 
efficiency obtainable with oil, but necessarily makes certain assump- 
tions regarding the heat values of the two fuels, and the weight per 
gallon of the oil, which may or may not fit some particular case. 


COMPARATIVE RATES OF EVAPORATION. Allen F. 
Brewer gives approximate comparative rates of evaporation of water 
from and at 212° F. 


One pound of fuel oil.............. 15.50 pounds of water Evap. 
One pound of coal, stoker fired...... 10.00 pounds of water Evap. 
One pound of coal, hand fired....... 7.50 pounds of water Evap. 


Copyright 1921 by Petroleum Age. 
Compiled by J. B. Rathbun. 


UCU CECE EEE eo 


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Se 
A 


ATINNTDI TATA ADT D HULA MAT ESTEE O (NUT TTD TDD ADDATHOAANATTTLAT THINS 


Page one hundred thirty-four 


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Qy 
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FUEL OIL TESTS AND COMPARISONS 


The data contained in the preceding sheet is combined in the table 
below, which gives the combined and weighted results of the tests. It 
will be noted that the test numbers are rearranged so that one watertube 
and one return tubular boiler is placed under each of the three headings. 
It was in this sequence that the tests were run. 


TESTS TESTS TESTS 
COMBINED AND WEIGHTED 
RESULTS— 


1-4 2-5 3-6 
Pleat WieOUsiT) Ee le Went ome ee kc ors 18,564 18,352 18,361 
Steam used by Eee yuan! (CAN Sn ase 3.77% 4.13% 4.29% 
Gross Evaporation at 212° F......... 14.042 14.077 13.811 
Grosse iheienGy orn rsa ea cates es 73.400 74.440 72.997 


These results are not to show what may be expected from a new 
well designed plant, designed for oil burning, but are to show what may 
be accomplished with an old altered plant, the boilers and settings of 
which are old and out of repair. There was probably enough leakage 
through the brick setting to lower the total efficiency by 5 percent 
or more. 

COMPARISON OF COSTS BY FORMULA. An approximate 
formula for estimating the comparative prices of coal and fuel oil has 
been published by the Tidewater Oil Company. This is not exact and 
will not suit every condition, but it will give a good idea of what may 
be expected in regard to the relative expenses. 


Let A =cost of coal per net ton (Total), including the items in the 
following example: 


Coallcost per netton on switchy....0..0.2.-5.0-52.00% $5.50 
Coal cost per net ton for unloading.................... .50 
Goalicost per net ton for lost coal:.. 0. ec. es .30 
Cost per net ton delivered to furnace................... .50 
pUmotcost permet ton forfirings 4... 2 4«. 25. 4.24.0. n: .60 
80% of cost per net ton handling ashes................ .30 

A =Total cost of net ton fired and ashed............. $7.70 


B =Factor 1.6, fireroom labor, loss through cleaning fires, etc. 

C=Factor 167, base-oil 144,000 B. T. U. per gallon, coal 
24,000,000 B. T. U. per ton. 

D =Price that can be paid for oil per gallon. 

E=Factor 104 

F =Number of gallons to equal coal now used per ton of 
metal treated. 

G =Factor 2000. 

H =Pounds of coal now used in treating one ton (2,000 lbs.) 


of metal. 
I =Factor 134—Boilers only—(167 X0.80). 
A XB A H XE 
Then: D= E=— a 
G D G 


Boiler formula: =— 


From A =$7.70 (total cost per ton of coal, and the factor [I] which 
is equal to 134, we can work out the given problem to obtain the price 
which eats paid for oil with coal at $7.70 per ton.) 

7 =—— =$0.057 =price per gallon of oil allowable. 
134 


HE 
The formula F = 
G 


is applicable only to metal working furnaces, 


not for boilers or power plants. 


Copyright 1921 by Petroleum Age. 
Compiled by J. B. Rathbun. 


UTE EEE 2 


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Page one hundred thirty-five 


Ke a 
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L 
SS 24 . 4, 
WS iN i: 
= WEIGHTS OF VARIOUS MATERIALS = 
= Average = 
= MATERIAL Specific [Per Cu. Ft = 
= Gravity | Pounds. = 
— BRICK 
= Comition red 5+ he ee eee 1.8 to 2.00 100 — 
= Fire-€lay 7all hs (vidi. Bate ieee ote | ee 150 = 
= OUICa ye eis) ke bios hoe a ee Ue eee ee 128 = 
moet Chrome tes fe hain wt ite ak bag Eee 175 es 
= Magnesia as brick or fused in furnace...]........... 160 = 
= CEMENT = 
aa Portland 4.04.50.5 cunck: Oe os ee eae ee | ee 78 = 
= FINE GROUND CLAYS, SILICA — 
= CEMENT, ETC. = 
= Pirescla y ies. genc Seis belo 5 Ge | eee 85 = 
= Silica ‘cements... sri os ons AZ Sane ate yee 75 = 
nme Magnesia‘ cement ..605 f4.5 odgs oh te Oe 127 = 
= Chrome,cement ).c/..5. 6.0) oid he ea ee 135 = 
ps Grain magnesite (as shipped)..........]........... 112 = 
— COAL AND COKE = 
= Anthracite. is fie ok A eee eee 1.4 to 1.7 60 = 
= Bituminotis 4.3) 37 one ee eee 1e2 tones 49 — 
= Charcoal tie i Oe ae oe Sees ee 18.5 = 
-— Ole eek siren aia cec eR es on an ee 1.0 to 1.4 26.3 = 
eo CONCRETE. = 
= Cement, fine; Stone, Sand............. 2.2 to 2.4 144 = 
= Gementi.Slag, etej2ey (4) se ee L.98tor2:3 130 = 
= EARTH = 
— Loam,’ dry, loose 6. 62.4... use ee eee 76 = 
— Loam; packed i."5 he se eee 95 = 
— Loam,’ soft, loose: mud-...5. cat, 2a eee 108 = 
= Loam, dense mud..,50\,.5...550 Dee. | eee 125 = 
== GLASS = 
os Common; window...4. 5. qs..c one ee 2.4 to 2.6 157 = 
= Plate 22 o eee ees a ooh eee en eee 2.45 to 2.7Z 172 coal 
a Crystal ey ose on ie a ee 2.90 to 3.06 184 = 
= Floor or skylight’) ...4)- \.c.5 6: i ee 158 = 
= GRAIN Es 
= COrmsteaci nc ae eRe a ste ces en [ee 45 = 
= Oats chet cg Sesion Les ae ee ee ae 24 = 
= Wheat 2.30... 2 chen Ravan pie oo ee ee 48 = 
= LIME = 
= Quick, looselumps...44..5-.. 7.050 | 53 = 
= Quick, ‘fines, 63.3 Bek Gee So oo ee eee 75 = 
= Stone, large rocks ..-5.. 2... 4.0).) 2) ak ee 168 = 
=] Stone, irregular lumps. <., 27) .0,4-5 eee 96 = 
= MASONRY = 
= Granite or limestone. .),.23)).0). 7. ae | ee 165 = 
— Mortar, rubbles i524), 20e0s oe |e 154 = 
ad Dries 254 Fs os et A se 138 = 
= Sandstone,; dressed)... 54. 3. sid) oo OL eee 144 = 
= METALS = 
= Aluminum: * 30) 5005. 3900 St ns ee, | eee 166 i 
= Brass; cast; ‘rolled 43 7s. ee 7.7 534 = 
= Bronze;"7.9'te [4% Sno. ease ee 7.4 to 8.9 509 _ 
= Copper, cast.2-anl bys ak a ke Ue | eee 537 = 
= Gopper, rolled or wire... ..:. 50) bee |e 555 = 
= Iron ‘cast; pig h..)0 Pee oe eee if P 450 = 
aoe lron;;wrought.. «Gee on ee ee 7.6 to 7.9 485 = 
if we 


) OTOL 


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AUSWALATAIND UTTAR RAVAEUA ADEE TTT 


Page one hundred thirty-six 


fe 


hes 
NEU i 


TAN TMU 


S 7 
SS s\ “7 
eS a Gz 
= WEIGHTS OF VARIOUS MATERIALS = 
= 4 Average = 
= MATERIAL Specific |Per Cu. Ft. = 
= Gravity Pounds — 
—_ METALS—Continued. = 
= IReacemCaSt hat ry tn ine hres te ie eS Rok eee 708 —= 
moo Lead, Ore—Galena.................. 7.3 to 7.6 465 = 
— Sel aCas tae eee ka Sk te knee | as Whe Oe oka 490 = 
= rec lroll ec amen carta. ots ih ay <cenre eifie id oe eeenod 495 — 
= ine cas tee oan ase ce ake ok BRIA Ale Sade Ae 459 — 
= BALTES COM W AE ee needs ee OMe einai NG ais) soap dee ere ( 438 = 
= OILS = 
= EEN 11) CR TEENY Pete crea | eS aw ae fis Shee eo 55 = 
_ Ord emer re ees eee ok oe wis oath [Nib ee heen eee 48 —_ 
aa PGeCCOle rine GAIA fats hee eee ie oa eas. 55 = 
so (Crate STE. 00 oho RC eng rua ee 43 = 
= ROCK = 
— Doronila w yee ee ak co Se ee wes 74,8) 181 = 
= ENTIRE, 1 GAS a a ELS IO ae ne a ee a 165 = 
— fy S UIT are Mes oe ence ees (6 cyte AIS au lowenetel Sd 143 = 
— SANS CONCH torr tain oe cadena hee a here 144 = 
aa ARI GEE SCOTE Mente Wirt iw OR Tcl we dane o)|\ol Recs mow weet 57 — 
= (OMEGA Reis b Ags og ee ee Se Eee ele (er ea 165 = 
= eRe OMT SE OM a ore, 6 AE ts Bay |e aes ON ee 45 = 
_ Stell, (AE. ae eo Bee SMES Ge Cee Tne tee (cE onan a 49 — 
= RelOe ETB aoe ROMS EUR See a 162 = 
= DALE MATILENICANRI Ee 5 ORM hint. Sa eagle 6 ss alee eas 175 = 
_ SAND = 
= rvgancdgloosenen. ee.) i ee kien 6 aks: doa las he we Se 100 = 
= Dryaandspackeds raises chs: sean). sacies aeen- 110 = 
fo PPeEERCROAG KOR acta cau h Siete: <i | os ame owe = 
= Gravelpacked unc. wot, ius se fe 6c nim Ol Caieee ot eee: — 
a WATER = 
pa Uti ora SeICe Me i Pel. en ine tak oP [a eaoew aye aes 58.7 -_ 
= Water at 32 degrees Fahrenheit........}........... 62.4 = 
= Water at 212 degrees Fahrenheit.......|........... 59.6 = 
= WOODS, DRY = 
= Jane OWS 05a eee En eet a 0.62 to 0.65 40 = 
= CESSES So. ae Algae RUS Sn Gee ee 43 — 
= IBS VALE 5 dag ten he te ante a oA OBE eee ee 45 — 
= GedareAmiGNiCan pink, oF seis «waist ® ibaa 0.32 to 0.38 Zi = 
= @hestuiita tree ear cere ckcme oe 0.66 4] = 
ren (CRAB ors Sg MR ae ee 0.48 30 — 
-_ Fre DOUG as see haters. keh cae ne eh Mack Ona 32 — 
= le kcal keyed eo I Ue ae eo een ea 0.42 to 0.52 29 = 
= PRICK OLY EAR ee ent ene CIs a be dale bE 0.74 to 0.84 49 — 
= EO WVOOC GMP ee fOr tnt ieee ct Bt te ek a ee 114 a 
= Inia Fal aWereeaie Gis 5 LTS y alt lS fae, © ac eae Rn meal OMe edareen rag 35 to 53 = 
= iWva kena} evs Vee Wale OR aN EL ee ae ea 0.68 43 = 
More (CLEW Sais ON 51s Reese Py ect eo a ea 0.95 59 = 
lass WaAkeawhrtenamyerae noi eae cries & cate 0.74 46 — 
= EATING EWATLEOME Net ef ak ie a rete. 'incta th | Mega, ers as 25 = 
= mimesyellow northern, 1266 oes «eee ys te aes 34 = 
= Piney yellow southern... .....5..2. 052.2 0] ps nens ool 45 — 
= PDLUCE MT NA Cin ack sire ice el eran oan ee 25 — 
= WG IEROLR s 2s SG BES tg ioe Rae ee > ME ME ante me Co 35 = 
= = 
7, > 


S 


CATENIN TE TOOT C INTE AT AAATAALATATTTTUTTTATIDNS 


Page one hundred thirty-seven 


Ke 
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4 
4% 
4M 
4% 
4M 
4% 
434 
4% 


5 

5% 
5M 
5% 
5% 
5% 
534 
5% 


6 

6% 
614 
6% 
614 
6% 


Circum. | Area Diem. | Circum. 


. 5664 
9591 
3518 
7445 
. 1372 
SPV AL) 
.9226 
23153 


.708 
. 1007 
.4934 
.8861 
. 2788 
.6715 
.0642 
.4569 


.8496 
. 2423 
.635 

.0277 
. 4204 
.8131 
.2058 
ELE 


9912 
. 3839 
. 7766 
. 1693 
.562 

.9547 
3474 
.7401 


. 1328 
S320 
.9182 
.3109 
. 7036 
.0963 
.489 

.8817 


CIRCUMFERENCES AND AREAS OF CIRCLES 
From 1-64 to 100 


SO \a\ 
= Diam | 

Ss | 

= Lael .04909 | .000192 
a ly .09818 | .000767 
= ly, 19635 | .003068 
= \% 3927 012272 
= 8% 589 027612 
= \Y 7854 049087 
= 5% .98175 076699 
= yA 1.1781 110447 
= ee 1.37445 | .15033 
= % 1.5708 19635 
~ % 1.76715 248505 
= 5% 1.9635 306796 
= 11% 2.15985 | .371224 
= 34 2.3562 441787 
= 13% 2.55255 | .518487 
i % 2.7489 601322 
= 15 / 2.94525 | .690292 
= 1 3.1416 7854 
= 1% 3.5343 99402 
= 1% 3.927 (2272 
= 134 4.3197 | 1.4849 
os 1% 4.7124 | 1.7671 
= 154 5.1051 | 2.0739 
= 134 5.4978 | 2.4053 

= 1% 5.8905 | 2.7612 
= 2 6.2832 | 3.1416 
on 2de 6.6759 | 3.5466 
= 2u% 7.0686 | 3.9761 
= 23% 7.4613 | 4.4301 
= 2% 7.854 4.9087 
= 25% 8.2467 | 5.4119 
= 234 8.6394 | 5.9396 
= 2% 9.0321 | 6.4918 
= 3 9.4248 | 7.0686 
= 31% 9.8175 | 7.6699 
= 3% 10.2102 | 8.2958 
= 33% 10.6029 | 8.9462 
= 3% 10.9956 | 9.6211 
= 35% 11.3883 |10.3206 
= 334 11.781 = | 11.0447 
= 3% 12.1737 |11.7933 
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Page one hundred thirty-eight 


AVA TET C) TEE 


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= CIRCUMFERENCES AND AREAS OF = 
= CIR GEES = 
= Continued = 
= Diam. | Circum. | Area | Diam | Circum. | Area = 
= 9 28.2744 63.6174 15 47.124 176.715 = 
— 9% 28 .6671 65.3968 15% 47.5167 179.673 a 
= 914 29.0598 67.2008 1514 47.9094 182.655 = 
oon 9% 29.4525 69 .0293 15% 48 .3021 185 .661 = 
— 91% 29.8452 70.8823 151% 48 6948 188.692 = 
ae 9% 30.2379 72.7599 15% 49 .0875 191.748 a! 
poe 934 30.6306 74.6621 1534 49.4802 194.828 = 
= 9% 31.0233 | 76.5888 15% 49.8729 197 .933 = 
= 10 31.416 78.54 16 50.2656 201 .062 = 
= 10% 31.8087 80.5158 161% 50.6583 204.216 = 
= 10144 32.2014 82.5161 1614 51.051 207 .395 a 
= 10 3% 32.5941 84.5409 163% 51.4437 210.598 — 
= 10% 32.9868 86.5903 16% 51.8364 213.825 = 
— 10% 33.3795 88 .6643 16% 52.2291 2172077 — 
a 1034 318) 90.7628 1634 52.6218 220.354 = 
= 10% 34.1649 92.8858 16% 53.0145 223 .655 = 
= 11 34.5576 95 .0334 17 53.4072 226.981 = 
oe 11% 34.9503 97.2055 17% 53.7999 230.331 = 
= 1144 35 343 99.4022 1714 54.1926 233 .906 = 
a 11% 35.7357 101.6234 17 3% 54.5853 237.105 =a 
—s 11% 36.1284 103 .8691 171% 54.978 240.529 = 
am 115% 36.5211 106.1394 175% 55.3707 243.977 — 
—_ 1134 36.9138 108 . 4343 1734 55.7634 247.45 = 
= 11% 37.3065 027537 17% 56.1561 250.948 = 
ses 12 37.6992 113.098 18 56.5488 254.47 = 
eo 12% 38.0919 115.466 18% 56.9415 258.016 = 
= 124% 38.4846 117.859 184 57.3342 261.587 =< 
= 12% 38.8773 120.277 183% 57.7269 265 . 183 = 
= 12% 39.27 122.719 181% 58.1196 268 .803 = 
= 12% 39 6627 125.185 18% 5825123 272.448 = 
= 1234 40.0554 127.677 1834 58.905 276.117 ~ 
= 12% 40.4481 130.192 18% 59.2977 279.811 = 
= 13 40.8408 1325733 19 59 6904 283 .529 = 
bar} 13% 41.2335 135.297 19% 60.0831 287 .272 = 
i 131% 41.6262 137.887 1914 60.4758 291.04 a 
= 13 3% 42.0189 140.501 193% 60.8685 294 .832 = 
= 13% 42.4116 143.139 19% 61.2612 298 .648 — 
= 13 % 42 .8043 145.802 195% 61.6539 302.489 ore 
— 1334 43.197 148.49 1934 62.0466 306.355 = 
= 13% 43.5897 151.202 19% 62 .4393 310.245 — 
Roe 14 43.9824 153.938 20 62.832 314.16 = 
cS 14% 44.3751 156 20% 63.2247 318.099 = 
se 14144 44.7678 159.485 2044 63.6174 322.063 = 
= 14% 45.1605 162.296 20%% 64.0101 326.051 — 
—e 141% 45.5532 165.13 20% 64.4028 330.064 = 
= 145% 45.9459 167.99 20 5% 64.7955 334.102 — 
- 1434 46 .3386 170.874 2034 65.1882 338.164 = 
SS 14% 46.7313 173.782 20% 65.5809 342.25 — 


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ANTTTTMTNTTTTNIG( CE TS 


= Page one hundred thirty-nine 


QUE U UE LS fe OCCT 
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= CIRCUMFERENCES AND AREAS OF a 
= CIRGEES = 
os Continued we 
sare = 
= Diam. | Circum. | Area Diam. | Circum. | Area wa 
— -~— 
= PA 65.9736 346.361 27 84.8232 572.557 = 
= 21% 66 . 3663 350.4974 27% 85.2159 577.87 = 
= 2114 66.759 354.657 274% 85.6086 583 .209 — 
= 213% 67.1517 358.842 27% 86.0013 588.571 = 
= 21% 67.5444 363.051 271% 86.394 593 .959 = 
= 21% 67 .9379 367.285 27% 86.7867 599 371 = 
need 2134 68 . 3298 371.543 2734 87.1794 604 .807 = 
_ 21% 68.7225 375 .826 27% 87.5729 610.268 = 
— 22 69.1152 380.134 28 87.9648 615.754 = 
= 22% 69.5079 384 . 466 28% 88.3575 621.264 = 
= 221% 69.9006 388.822 2814 88.7502 626.798 = 
= 223% 70.2933 393 .203 28 34 89.1429 632.357 = 
= 221% 70.686 397 .609 2814 89.5356 637.941 = 
= 22% 71.0787 402 .038 28 54 89.9283 643 .549 = 
= 2234 71.4714 406 .494 2834 90.321 649.182 — 
rn 22% 71.8641 410.973 28% 90.7137 654.84 = 
= 23 72.2568 415.477 29 91.1064 660.521 = 
= 23% 72.6495 420.004 29% 91.4991 666 . 228 a 
= 2314 73 .0422 424.558 2994 91.8918 671.959 = 
= 23 3% 73.4349 AZO 3135 293% 92.2845 677.714 = 
_ 231% 73.8276 433.737 291% 92.6772 683 .494 = 
= 23% 74.2203 438 364 29% 93 .0699 689.299 = 
= 2334 74.613 443.015 2934 93 .4626 695.128 = 
= 23% 75.0057 447 .69 29% 93 .8553 700 . 982 = 
= 24 75.3984 452.39 30 94.248 706 . 86 = 
= 241% 75.7911 457.115 30% 94.6407 712.163 = 
= 2414 76.1838 461.864 3014 95.0334 718.69 — 
— 243% 76.5765 466 .638 30%% 95.4261 724 .642 = 
= 241% 76.9692 471.436 30% 95.8188 730.618 = 
= 24% 77.3619 476.259 30 5% 96.2115 736.619 — 
— 2434 77.7546 481.107 3034 96 .6042 742.645 = 
= 24% 78.1473 485 .979 30% | 96.9969 748 .695 = 
= 25 78.54 490.875 31 97 .3896 754.769 = 
= 25% 1859377 495.796 31% 97.7823 760.869 = 
= 2514 79.9254 500.742 31% 98.175 766.992 = 
= 25% 79.7181 505.712 31% 98 .5677 773.14 = 
= 251% 80.1108 510.706 31% 98 .9604 779.313 = 
= 25% 80.5035 515.726 31% 99.3531 785.51 = 
— 2534 80.8962 520.769 31384 99.7458 LOTR IS2 = 
= 25% 81.4889 525 .838 31% | 100.1385 1912979 os 
= 26 81.6816 530.93 32 100.5312 804.25 = 
= 261% 82.0743 536.048 32% | 100.9239 810.545 = 
ome 26144 82.476 541.19 3214 | 101.3166 816.865 — 
- 26 3% 82.8597 546.356 323% | 101.7093 823.21 = 
— 2614 83.2524 551.547 321% | 102.102 829.579 = 
fae 26% 83.6451 556.763 325% | 102.4947 835.972 — 
= 2634 84.0378 562 .003 3234 | 102.8874 842.391 = 
= 26% 84.4305 567.267 32% | 103.2801 848 .833 = 
= = 
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COMMITTED C 1017010000100 0 DTA ADD TNTATATTATTUNY 


Page one hundred forty 


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CIRCUMFERENCES AND AREAS OF 


Circum. 


103 .673 
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Page one hundred forty-one 


AUTO: \c\ TERROR ea 


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= CIRCUMFERENCES AND AREAS OF = 
= CIRCEES = 
= Continued s 
oe Diam | Circum | Area | Diam | Circum | Area = 
oa 45 141.372 1590.43 51 160.22 2042.82 = 
= 45% 141.765 1599.28 52 163 .36 2123.71 = 
— 451% 142.157 1608.16 53 166.50 2206.18 = 
— 45 3% 142.55 1617.05 54 169.65 2290.21 = 
= 451% 142.943 1625.97 55 172.79 2375782 = 
am 455% 143.335 1634.92 56 175.93 2463.01 oes! 
= 4534 143.728 1643 .89 57 179.07 2551.75 = 
= 45% 144.121 1652.89 58 182.21 2642.08 = 
= 59 185.35 2733 .97 = 
- 60 188.50 2827 . 43 = 
4 46 144.514 1661.91 6l 191.64 2922.46 = 
ae: 46% 144.906 1670.95 62 194.78 3019.07 — 
oa 46144 145.299 1680.02 63 197.92 3117.24 am 
— 463% 145.692 1689.11 64 201.06 3216.99 = 
oe 461% 146.084 1698 . 23 65 204.20 3318.30 = 
= 465% 146.477 1707 .37 66 207 .35 3421.18 = 
on 4634 146.87 1716.54 67 210.49 3525.65 = 
= 46% 147.262 1725073 68 213.63 3631.68 = 
~ 69 216.77 3739.28 = 
- 70 219.91 3848.45 = 
== 47 147.655 1734.95 oe 
= 47% 148.048 1744.19 71 223.05 3959.19 = 
— 4714 148.441 1753.45 72 226.19 4071.50 =— 
— 473% 148.833 1762.74 73 229 .34 4185.38 —_ 
= 47% 149.226 1772.06 74 232.48 4300.84 4 
— 47 5% 149.619 1781.4 75 235.62 4417.86 = 
= 4734 150.011 1790.76 76 238.76 4536.45 = 
= 47% 150.404 1800.15 Lil 241.90 4656.62 = 
rae 78 245 .04 4778.36 — 
= 79 248.19 4901.66 =. 
= 80 251.33 5026.54 == 
= 48 150.797 1809.56 = 
— 48 \4 151.189 1819. 81 254.47 5153.00 = 
4814 151.582 1828.46 82 257.61 5281.01 — 
= 48 3% 151.975 1837.95 83 260.75 5410.59 i 
— 48% 152.368 1847.46 84 263 .89 5541.77 = 
—_ 48 5% 152.76 1856.99 85 267 .04 5674.50 = 
— 4834 153.153 1866.55 86 270.18 5808 .80 = 
— 48% 153.546 1876.14 87 273 .32 5944.67 = 
~ 88 276.46 6082.11 oa 
sa 89 279.60 6221.13 — 
= 90 282.74 6361.72 — 
pas 49 153.938 1885.75 _ 
= 4914 154.331 1895 .38 91 285 .88 6503 .87 = 
-_ 494% 154.724 1905 .04 92 289 .03 6647 .61 = 
— 493% 155.116 1914.72 93 292.17 6792.90 — 
= 4916 155.509 1924. 43 94 295.31 6939.78 = 
_ 49% 155.902 1934.16 95 298 .45 7088.21 = 
om 4934 156.295 1943.91 96 301.59 7238.23 = 
= 49% 156.687 1953.69 97 304.73 7389.81 = 
— 98 307.88 7542.96 — 
a 99 311.02 7697 .68 a 
— 50 157.08 1963.5 100 314.16 7853.97 = 
Ty, 


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Page one hundred forty-two 


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AS ER CUELERSVUNTATTRRLUC ACEH 5 g SUITED LTT? 


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PEeeiViArS-OF AN INCH FOR EACH 
1-64th 


015625 | 33-64 : 915625 
03125 17-32 ; ; tL) 
046875 | 35-64 ; 546875 
.0625 9-16 5625 
078125 | 37-64 10123 
09375 19-32 ; ; 2935/5 
.109375 | 39-64 .609375 
eb22 5-8 625 
.140625 | 41-64 .640625 
15625 21-32 , .65625 
.171875 | 43-64 : ; .671875 
1875 11-16 .6875 
.203125 | 45-64 703125 
21875 23-32 7 1875 
.234375 | 47-64 ; 134375 
P20 oe off) 
.265625 | 49-64 765625 
28125 25-32 ELOLZS 
.296875 | 51-64 196875 
25 13-16 , ; 8125 
328125 | 53-64 , , 828125 
34375 27-32 84375 
359375 | 55-64 859375 
375 7-8 875 
.390625 | 57-64 ' 890625 
40625 29-32 .90625 
421875 | 59-64 ' 921875 
4375 15-16 0313 
453125 | 61-64 ; ; 953125 
46875 31-32 .96875 
484375 | 63-64 984375 
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Page one hundred forty-three 


LAY Bs 


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RU iss | a A MU 
S$ I BRANDS P| 7, 
SS eu FL 
= METRIC WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 
= —— +o Cult «»- —— 
= METRIC WEIGHTS 
= Milligram (.001 gram) = =). omeeeOna) eee 
= Centigram (.01 gram) - - - - - 0.1543 grain 
= Decigram (.1 gram) - - - - - 1.5432 grains 
= Gram - = & = =) 2) 2037 
= Decagram (10 grams) - - - - - 0.3527 oz. avoir. 
= Hectogram (100 grams) - - - - 3.5274 oz. avoir. 
= Kilogram (1000 grams) - - - - 2.2046 Ibs. avoir. 
= Myriagram (10,000 grams) - - - 22.02462 lbs. avoir. 
= Quintal (100 kilos) - - - - - - 220.4622 Ibs. avoir. 
= Millier or Ton (1000 kilos) - - -2,204.6223 Ibs. avoir. 
= METRIC DRY MEASURES 
= Milliliter (001 liter) - - - - - - 0.061 cu. in. 
= Centiliter (.0I liter) - - - - 0.6103 cu. in. 
= Deciliter (.1 liter) - - - - - 6.1027 cu. in. 
= Liter) capes are ae es » 0.9081 quart 
= Decaliter (10 liters) - - - - - - 9.0808 quarts 
= Hectoliter (100 liters) - - - - =- - 2.8377 bushels 
= Kiloliter (1000 liters) - - - - = = 1.3079 cu. yds. 
= METRIC LIQUID MEASURES 
= Milliliter (001 liter) - - - - - - 0.0338 fluid oz. 
= Centiliter:(.0l iter) “= “= 29230 2ae 0.3381 fluid oz. 
= Deciliter (.l] liter) - - - - = = = 0.8452 gill 
= Liter ( -).30 2 @ x oy Se 1.0567 quarts 
= Decaliter (10 liters) - - - - - = 2.6417 gallons 
= Hectoliter (100 liters) - - - - - - 26.4170 gallons 
= Kiloliter (1000 liters) - - - - - - 264.1705 gallons 
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Page one hundred forty-four = 


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METRIC WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 


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METRIC MEASURES OF LENGTH 


Millimeter (.00l meter) - - - - - 0.03937 inch 
Centimeter (.01 meter) - - - - - 0.3937 inch 
Decimeter (.1 meter) - - - - - - 3.937 inches 
Wieteremiar es ee 39/37 inches 
Decameter (10 meters) - - - - - 32.8083 feet 
Hectometer (100 meters) - - - - - 328.083 _ feet 
Kilometer (1000 meters) - - - - - 3280.83 feet 
Kilometer (1000 meters) - - - - - 0.62137 mile 
Myriameter (10,000 meters) - - - - 6.2137 miles 


METRIC SURFACE MEASURES 


Centare (1 sq. meter) - - - - - - 1,550 sq. in. 
Are (100 sq. meters) - - -‘- - - 119.6 sq. yds. 
Hectare (10,000 sq. meters) - - - - 2.471 acres 


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Page one hundred forty-five 


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Aging Clay 
Air—Avoiding over supply 


Annealing 

Annealing Ovens 

Arch Brick Tables 

Areas of Circles 

Atomic Weight Tables 
Atomic Weight—What it is 


Boiler Tile and Shapes 


Burning 


Cement—High Temperature 

Centegrade Thermometer—Compared with Fahrenheit... . 
Checker Brick 

Chemistry 

Circle Brick—Standard—T able 


Circumferences of Circles 
Clay Burning Kilns 


Colors Corresponding to Temperatures 
Combustion 


E 
Electrical Units—Equivalent Values in Mechanical Units.. 128-129 


F 


Fahrenheit Thermometer—Compared with Centegrade... . 
Fire-Clay Cement 
Flux Blocks 


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INDEX 
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G 
GaspaluerArch brick) lable. .2. (sche cereuhe sal) etek 96 
Glass Furnace Material—Description................... 71 

H 
FiobeAluminayRetractories, ¢ 0. :4.s0)s62...8..450.5455 68 
High Temperature Cement.................... be eee 69 
1 one WUE 22 yc) Raed ee i ene eat ae? 128 

I 
fnformetions la blesses at bechick ane na, See lle coe 110 
Inside Diameter—Lo Find... .:. 2.0.8.0 co eee e cen eee 110 

K 
Meyanekeiabless 97 5) fe fa he oe eh tae olehense wun 87 
Key Brick Tables, 1314%4”...:.... =) sae: Rae RI gokart a 92 
INevalbricksllables® 92x00) x3 so) ec ce Ok fms onda 94 

: i 

Load—Test for Refractory Materials at High Temperatures 100 

M 
Maileableslurnace Linings... 0. ¢o0 oo ht a teen ces 62 
Mechanical Units—Equivalent Values in Electrical Units.. 128-129 
Metmestcquivalentsem ¢0- 25 Ger et ion cts ode eae ee 144 
Monofrax..... 5 ei ECE Oe RN eet Ae CRN EERE 69: 

O 
OilforeIndustrial Furnacés,. .:..... - 66.6 cds ee oe 130 to 135 

P 
porosity Standard lest for. . so. 0....0..0060 0404 gu ead 105 
| SAREE ELIS 26/0 cree Ee oa ae ete OP Se 115 

R 
Radiation Losses through Brick Walls................... 120 
Radius of Arc of Circle—Rule for Finding............... 109 
IRGiractoryeDlOCKe tre As pacjesis aerate Gh aces Su eh athe eaters eee 77 


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Seger-Orton Cones—Softening Points 

Semi-open Products—Description 

Softening Points—Standard Tests...................... 
Spalling 

Symbols of Chemical Elements 


Tank Blocks 

Tempered Brick—Description. . 

Tests, Standard—For Refractory Materials Under Load at 
High Temperatures 


Walsh Brands 

Water Gas Linings 

Wedge Brick Tables 

Weights of Various Materials 


100 to 108 


136-137 


Page one hundred forty-eight 


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